HANDBOOK-DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

AND 

HOUSEHOLD ARTS 



W/LSON 



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LIBRARY OR CONGRESS. 



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Chap.....V.l Copyright >'o. 
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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



HANDBOOK 



OF 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND 
HOUSEHOLD ARTS 



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HANDBOOK OF 

DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND 
HOUSEHOLD ARTS 



FOR USE IN 



ELEMENTAEY SCHOOLS 

A MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 



WITH A PREFACE BY 
MRS. ELLEN H. RICHARDS 

OF THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY 

AND 

WITH CHAPTERS CONTRIBUTED BY OTHER WELL 
KNOWN SPECIALISTS 



EDITED BY 

LUCY LANGDONT WILLIAMS WILSON, Ph.D. 

OF THE PHILADELPHIA NORMAL SCHOOL 



Nefo |£ orfe 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 
1900 

All rights reserved 



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Copyright, 1900, 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



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Till by experience taught the mind shall learn 
That, not to know at large of things remote 
From use, obscure and subtle, but to know- 
That which before us lies in daily life, 
Is the prime wisdom." 

—John Milton. 



PREFACE 

According to a prevalent theory of education, the child 
acquaints himself with the various objects of his environ- 
ment in order to have a basis of choice in his after life as 
well as to develope his observing faculties. The knowledge 
which he consciously or unconsciously gains in his early 
years remains indelible, as do the letters lightly cut in the 
bark of a young sapling, which may be read even more 
distinctly in the grown tree. 

Owing to the rapid changes in environment, — economic, 
industrial, mechanical, and social, — many a teacher finds 
herself at a loss in trying to aid her pupils to find their 
place in a world which is almost as new to her as to them. 
Where everything is in a more or less plastic condition, 
firm foothold is not possible, and the already overworked 
teacher is not able to search out the truth from the multi- 
tude of books, to understand the new processes, to keep up 
with the daily inventions. 

To the child's endless " Why ? " and " How ? " she must 
turn a deaf ear, or she must " work up " the various subjects 
from newspaper or magazine articles based on encyclopae- 
dias, which are admirable epitomes of past and gone history, 
but most misleading and insufficient as to growing science. 

This little book is an endeavor on the part of the several 
experienced teachers to put into a form helpful to others 
that which they themselves have gathered with much labor. 
The topics relate to that routine of daily life which influ- 

vii 



Vlll PREFACE 

ences every child for good or ill throughout its career, and 
which may be beneficial in proportion as it is understood 
and controlled. 

Objection has been made to taking the time of the school 
for those things which the home should teach. If they were 
taught in the home, the objection would be valid; but, 
with the best will in the world, how can the mother, any 
more than the teacher, keep abreast of the revolutions in 
social habits which are now taking place ? That she does 
not do so the present chaotic and unscientific condition of 
the household amply testifies. To interest the pupils of 
school age in the various operations of the daily life is to 
give them a safeguard for health and morality which will 
be of lasting benefit in the homes of rich and poor alike. 

Although it is probable that no knowledge which could 
be gained in school would have a more profound effect on 
national wealth or on human happiness, yet it is evident 
that these teachers do not regard the work outlined in the 
following pages so much from the point of view of informa- 
tion as from that of education, that education which should 
be a development of the child's power over his environment, 
and over his own efficiency as a human being. 

ELLEN H. RICHARDS. 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
September, 1899. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



SEPTEMBER 



CHAPTER I 

The House Beautiful, by May Haggenbotham, late Di- 
rector of Domestic Science and Art Courses at Drexel 
Institute, Philadelphia, sometime Assistant Superin- 
tendent of Public Schools, Philadelphia 
I. Construction of the House 
II. The Vestibule . 

III. The Hall . 

IV. The Dining Room 
V. The Living Room 

VI. The Bedrooms . 

VII. The Bath-room . 

VIII. The Kitchen . 

IX. Making the Best of it 

X. The Use and Abuse of Ornament 



PAGE 



1 

5 
7 

10 
13 
14 
16 
17 
18 
20 
22 



OCTOBER 
CHAPTER II 



The Kitchen, by Abby Lillian Marlatt, M.Sc, late Professor 
of Domestic Science in the Utah Agricultural College, 
now Teacher of Domestic Science in the Manual Train- 
ing High School, Providence, Rhode Island ... 27 

Bibliography 29 

Equipment 29 

ix 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Section I. Fire 32 

Bibliography 32 

Heat 32 

Combustion 34 

Fuel 39 

The Range .47 

Section II. Cleanliness 55 

Bibliography 55 

Chemistry of Cleaning 56 

Iron 56 

Brass and Copper 56 

Tin . . 56 

Zinc, Aluminium, Nickel, Silver .... 56 

Glass 57 

Porcelain 57 

Granite and Enamelled Ware .... 57 

Grease 57 

Care of the Sink 58 

Traps 58 

Antiseptics, Disinfectants, Deodorants . . .59 
Experiments . . . . . . . 60-63 



CHAPTER III 

ADVANCED COURSE 

Starchy Foods, and how to cook them, by Abby Lillian 
Marlatt, M.Sc, late Professor of Domestic Science in 
Utah Agricultural College, now Teacher of Domestic 
Science in the Manual Training High School, Provi- 
dence, Rhode Island 64 

Starch 64 

Recipes 68 

Riced Potatoes 68 

Escalloped Potatoes .... 69 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XI 



PAGE 



Transformation of Starch into Soluble Compounds . 69 

History of Sauces 69 

Roux (Brown Sauce) 72 

White Sauce 73 

Macaroni 73 

Additional Work in Sauces 75 

Cabbage au Gratin 76 

Rice 76 

Recipes 78 

Starch as a Thickening Agent 79 

Recipes 80 

Potato Soup 80 

Chocolate Cream Pudding 80 

Vanilla Sauce 81 

Tapioca, Arrowroot, Sago 81 

Corn 83 

Potatoes . . 87 

Recipes 89 

Transformation of Starch into more Soluble Com- 
pounds 90 

Starchy Foods for the Sick 92 

Bibliography 93 



NOVEMBER 

CHAPTER IV 

Foods, by Mrs. L. L. W. Wilson, Ph.D., of the Philadelphia 

Normal School 95 

Bibliography 97 

Milk 98 

Protein 102 

Carbohydrates (Sugars, Starch, etc.) .... 106 

Hydrocarbons (Fats and Oils) 106 



Xll 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Inorganic Food Materials 107 

Salt 107 

Water 108 

Oxygen 110 



DECEMBER 



CHAPTER V 



Foods (Continued), by Mrs. L. L. W. Wilson, Ph 
Philadelphia Normal School 

Food Values 

Dietaries 

Food Econom 
Drinks 

Tea 

Coffee . 

Cocoa 

Chocolate 



D., of the 



113 
117 
119 
122 
129 
129 
134 
139 
141 



CHAPTER VI 



Advanced Course, by Mrs. L. L. W. Wilson, Ph.D., of the 

Philadelphia Normal School 142 

Proteids, and how to cook them 142 

Eggs . . . 143 

Comparative Costs and Values of Meats . . . 144 

Mutton 147 

Chicken 150 

Veal 152 

Stock 152 

Custards 154 

Beefsteak 155 

Croquettes 156 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Xlll 



JANUARY 

CHAPTER VII 

PAGE 

Principles of Cooking, by Mrs. L. L. W. Wilson, Ph.D., 

of the Philadelphia Normal School . . . .159 

Bibliography 161 

Effects of Heat 163 

Effects of Cold Water 163 

Boiling and Steaming 166 

Boiling of Bones 168 

Boiling of Milk 168 

Stewing 169 

Extracting 170 

Roasting 170 

Broiling 170 

Frying 171 

CHAPTER VIII 
ADVANCED COL 1 BSE 



Fish, Oysters, and Salads, by Alice Hooper Beckler, B.S., 

late Instructor in Domestic Science, Pratt Institute, 

now Teacher in Charge of the Zoological Laboratory, 

Philadelphia Normal School 

Fish .... 

Bibliography 

Anatomy of Fish 

Preparation for Market 

Season ableness . 

Nutritive Value . 

Digestibility 

Methods of Cooking . 

Synopsis of Lessons . 



173 
173 
173 
173 
177 
178 
180 
183 
184 
187 



XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Oysters 192 

Bibliography 192 

Anatomy 193 

Cultivation of the Oyster 194 

Preparation for Market 194 

Preparation for Cooking 195 

Soups and Stews 196 

Salads 197 

Bibliography . .197 

Food Value 197 

Varieties 198 

French Dressing 199 

Olive Oil 200 

Cottonseed Oil 201 

Mayonnaise 201 

Chicken and Meat Salads 202 

Rice Salad 202 



FEBEUAEY 

CHAPTER IX 

The Dining Room, by Mrs. L. L. W. Wilson, Ph.D., of the 

Philadelphia Normal School 205 

Bibliography . - 207 

Decoration and Furnishing of the Dining Room . . 208 

Breakfast 211 

Dinner 222 

Luncheon or Supper 227 

The Weekly Cleaning 228 

Table Manners 231 

Plants, Flowers, and Aquaria 232 

Lamps 235 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XV 

CHAPTER X 
ADVANCED COURSE 

PAGE 

Bread, Pastry, and Cake, by Mrs. Alice Peloubet Norton, 
Lasell Seminary; Boston Y. W. C. A. Domestic Science 

Dept., and Chautauqua, X.Y 237 

Bibliography . . 237 

Bread . .238 

Yeast 241 

Recipes 247 

Whole Wheat Bread 248 

Lessons 249 

Baking Powder Mixtures 251 

Baking Powder Biscuit 253 

Short Cake 253 

Dutch Apple Cake 254 

Baking Powder 254 

Cake ' 256 

Pastry 258 

MAECH 

CHAPTER XI 

The Bedroom, by Caroline L. Hunt, A.B., late Assistant 
in Food Investigation, LLS. Department of Agriculture, 
now Instructor in Domestic Economy, Lewis Institute, 

Chicago 261 

Bibliography 263 

Hygiene of the Bedroom 264 

Building and Furnishing 270 

Personal Habits in the Bedroom 273 

Care of the Bedroom 275 

Feeding and Care of the Sick 277 

Invalid Cookery 284 



XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS 

APRIL 
CHAPTER XII 

PAGE 

The Laundry, by Mary B. Vail, Graduate and late Instructor 
in Laundry Work, Pratt Institute, now Instructor in Do- 
mestic Science in the Manual Training High School, 

Indianapolis, Indiana 287 

Bibliography 289 

I. Equipment for Laundry 289 

II. Study of Materials 290 

Water 290 

Soap 291 

Bluing 291 

Starch 292 

III. Rules and Recipes 292 

IV. Practical Lessons in Washing and Ironing . 294 
V. Ironing 295 

VI. Care of the Laundry and Utensils . . .296 

Course I. Eight Fundamental Lessons . . . 297 
Course II. Eight Supplementary Lessons . . .306 



MAY 

CHAPTER XIII 

Household Pests, by S. Maria Elliott, Boston, Massachu- 
setts, joint author with Mrs. Richards of "Chemistry of 

Cooking and Cleaning " 315 

Bibliography 317 

Outline 318 

Materials 318 

Methods 318 

Processes 319 



TABLE OF CONTENTS XV11 

PAGE 

Experiments 319 

I. Typical Insect 321 

II., III. Insects Injurious or Disagreeable to Persons . 326 

II. Flies and Mosquitoes .... 326 

III. Bedbugs and Fleas 332 

IV., V. Insects Injurious to Food or Food Supplies . 339 

IV. Cockroaches 339 

V. Ants, etc 344 

VI., VII. Insects Injurious to Clothing or Fabrics . . 348 
VI. Moths and Silverfish . . . .348 

VII. Carpet-beetles and Crickets . . . 355 
Suggestions for Related Language and Reading 

Lessons 359 



CHAPTER XIV 

House Cleaning, by Mrs. L. L. W. Wilson, Ph.D., of the 

Philadelphia Normal School 362 



JUNE 

CHAPTER XV 

Mending and Sewing, by Julia K. McDougall, Supervisor 

of Classes in Domestic Art, Pratt Institute . . . 365 

Bibliography 367 

History of Sewing 368 

Study of Material 369 

Wool 369 

Cotton 370 

Flax 371 

Needles . . . 372 

Thimble 373 

Lessons in Detail 374 



XV111 TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER XVI 

PAGE 
HOW TO TURN AN ORDINARY SCHOOLROOM INTO A WORK- 
SHOP for the Study of Household Arts, by M. Isa- 
bella McNear, graduate of the Boston Normal School 
of Domestic Science, late Principal of Trinity Parish 
Cooking School. Now Instructor in Domestic Science, 
Hampton Institute, Virginia 390 



INTRODUCTION 



The course of study outlined in the following pages has 
already been subjected to the test of practical application 
in the schoolroom, with excellent results. I believe that 
it may be pursued with profit, both to the teacher and to 
the pupil, in any or all of grammar grades, and in any 
school however poorly equipped. 

It has been planned chiefly to meet the needs of the 
ordinary grade teacher in the public schools. It is designed 
as an answer to two questions which she will probably ask 
herself when invited to undertake this work, — questions 
which may present themselves so forcibly as to be received 
as insuperable objections to the further consideration of the 
matter. 

"Can I teach this subject without special training?" 

"Can I accomplish anything without a laboratory, that 
is to say, without special rooms equipped and set aside for 
this purpose ? " 

The answer to both questions is yes, for the first year of 
the course here presented does not presuppose special train- 
ing on the part of the teacher, nor the use of special labora- 
tories. It does, however, take for granted a strong desire 
on her part to do this work, a lively belief in its efficiency, 
and an earnest effort to become better acquainted with the 
facts and philosophy of everyday home life. 

The grade teacher who first earnestly teaches as much 
as she can without a laboratory will have the most con- 

xix 



XX INTRODUCTION 

vincing argument on her side when she asks, as she cer- 
tainly will, for rooms properly arranged and equipped for 
the purpose. To such Miss McNear's chapter on " How to 
turn an Ordinary Schoolroom into a Workshop for the Study 
of Household Arts " will be full of valuable suggestions. 

One of the chief merits of the book lies in the fact that 
since each chapter of this manual contains, by design, much 
more material than can possibly be used under the most 
advantageous circumstances in the single month in which 
it is placed, the teacher is thereby enabled to give a course 
or several courses adapted to her own peculiar needs and 
facilities. She may give with its aid : — 

1. A course of one hour a week for one year, consisting 
of " housework. " A laboratory is not absolutely necessary. 

2. A course of two hours a week for one year, or one 
hour for two years, consisting of housework, mending, and 
food. A laboratory is not absolutely necessary. 

3. A course of two hours a week for two years, con- 
sisting of housework, sewing, foods., principles of cooking, 
and some practice in the art. For this course a laboratory 
will be necessary. 

4. A course of two hours a week for three years. This 
will include nearly all the material given in this volume. 
A laboratory will be necessary. 

5. A four years' course, including more practice in sew- 
ing and cooking. For the efficient carrying out of this 
course the teacher will need for her own use in teaching 
the fourth year students a text-book for cooking similar 
to the "Boston Cooking School Cook-book " and Smith's 
"Needlework for Student Teachers." Laboratories are 
necessary. 

Those who can give but one hour a week to the subject 
are urged to pay particular attention to Chapter I, in which 
are outlined ten topics, each of which might well occupy 



INTRODUCTION XXI 

one of the ten school months. Other chapters discuss each 
of these subjects with more detail. 

To those who can spend at least two hours a week on 
this subject, the following division of the subject-matter 
is suggested : — 

September. — Development of the Home Ideal, Evolu- 
tion of the House, General Considerations of Each of its 
Booms. Chapter I on the House Beautiful. 

October. — The Kitchen, including the Eange and Clean- 
ing. 

November. — Foods : Study of Food Materials and their 
Digestion. 

December. — Foods : Food Value, Dietaries, and Food 
Economies. 

January. — Principles of Cooking. 

February. — TJie Dining Boom, including preparation 
of menus. 

March. — The Bedroom, including ventilation. 

April. — Laundry. 

May. — Household Pests. 

June. — Mending. 

For both of these general courses the Reader written to 
accompany this manual and intended for the use of pupils 
will be found of value. In it may be found the homes 
of literature, household customs of other ages and countries, 
studies of home materials, etc. 

Those who can spend two consecutive years of two 
hours a week are advised to follow in the second year a 
course something like the following : — 



XX11 INTRODUCTION 

September. — Review the Chemistry of Foods and Prin- 
ciples of Cooking. 

October and November. — Starchy Foods and How to 
Cook Them. 

December. — Proteids and How to Cook Them. 

January. — Fish, Oysters, and Salad. 

February. — Cake and Pastry. 

March. — Invalid Cooking. 

April. — Advanced Laundry Work. 

May. — House Cleaning and Household Pests. 

June. — Advanced Mending and Sewing. 

Related Work: Reading. — The Reader accompanying 
this manual provides abundant reading matter. But with 
the aid of the typewriter and mimeograph, or even with 
the mimeograph alone, the intelligent teacher can provide 
her class with additional material by following up the 
numerous references, particularly to the various magazines. 

Language. — Or she may use these same sources of mate- 
rial for her own information, imparting it to the children 
in oral language lessons. Carefully written exercises should 
follow all completed subjects. 

It goes without saying in these progressive days, all new 
words belong to the next spelling lesson. 

Arithmetic. — This is somewhat carefully worked out in 
the chapter on " Foods." Similar work may be done in con- 
nection with many of the other subjects. Do not fall into 
the prevalent error of thinking that in using the word "fish " 
in an arithmetical problem you are correlating arithmetic 
and domestic science ! The problem must be real, not sham, 
and the relationship intrinsic, not artificial. Probably the 



INTRODUCTION XXlll 

best opportunity for this applied arithmetic may be found 
in the planning and equipment of the rooms. The dimen- 
sions, areas, and costs are questions that must be solved by 
some. Why not by the pupils as well as the teacher ? 

In conclusion I should like to say that if the grade teacher 
feels as much interest and gathers as much knowledge in 
reading this volume as I did in reading each separate 
manuscript, as it came to my hands, then the mission of 
the book will be accomplished, and the day is near at hand 
when every school child in the land will be guided by intel- 
ligent hands over the threshold of that earthly Paradise, 
a clean, restful, beautiful home. 

But remember, 

" It takes a Mind to drive the Body- 
Even to a cleaner sty ! " 



L. L. W. WILSON. 



Philadelphia Normal School, 
January, 1900. 



SEPTEMBER 



THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL 

By MAY HAGGENBOTHAM 

Late Director of Domestic Science and Art Courses at Drexel 

Institute, Philadelphia 

Sometime Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools 

of Philadelphia 



CHAPTER I 

THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL 

By MAY HAGGENBOTHAM 

u Our life can never be complete, never be rational or righteous, 
until it is beautiful. Only when every foul alley, every noxious home, 
every vulgar structure, and every base fashion is banished from the 
city and over all is spread the mantle of health and beauty, only then 
can . .. . whatever city be ours be indeed the city of God." 

From " A More Beautiful Public Life," by Edwin D. Mead. 

The public school is responsible for the nurture and devel- 
opment of every civic virtue. The feeling for beauty is one 
of these virtues. 

From first to last of his school life the child should be 
taught to aim at cleanliness and simplicity, and through 
these at beauty, in the schoolroom and in the home. Only 
in proportion as this teaching is given can we hope to banish 
the " foul alley and noxious home " and to replace the " vul- 
gar structure and base fashion " with things of beauty. 

This truth is pressing itself home to teachers everywhere, 
and not a few are asking, " How can we who have had no 
special training in matters of taste and art bring this influ- 
ence into the lives of our pupils ? " 

It is the design of this chapter to answer this question 
in part at least. The subject is a broad one and needs 
a book rather than a chapter; but some suggestions can 
be made. 

From the School to the Home. — It is repeatedly said that 
the teaching in the schools should find closer application 

3 



4 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

to the home. The problem is, how to make this appli- 
cation. 

We cannot follow each pupil into his home and show him 
how to apply our teaching — how to make the best of his 
means and his limitations. We are masters of nothing but 
precept and example. 

The most that the teacher can do is to use earnestly 
and vigorously every means of illustration afforded her by 
nature and by art to arouse and keep alive in the child a 
love for beauty, and then to make herself and her surround- 
ings the best possible exponent of her teachings. 

With the schoolroom an embodiment of the teacher's 
ideas of cleanliness, refinement, and beauty, she can lead 
the pupils to think about the home and desire to make it 
beautiful. 

An Expedient. — In my own classes I have tried with 
gratifying results the expedient of constructing and furnish- 
ing an imaginary house that should meet all sanitary require- 
ments and be convenient and beautiful ; and I have never 
given any instruction that was received with more interest 
and enthusiasm than this was. 

The Domestic Instinct. — The domestic instinct is very 
lively in young girls. Every one expects some day to have 
a home of her own, and she will go with you every step of 
the way in rearing it in fancy. Girls in the humblest as 
well as those in the most comfortable homes will enter into 
the matter with as much gravity and earnestness as though 
the actual work were in progress ; and they will take end- 
less pains to make observations of house plans, to visit 
houses that are building, to notice the shapes and styles of 
furniture, and the quality and color of fabrics that are dis- 
played in the shops ; and in every other way that you sug- 
gest, they will observe, compare, and form conclusions as to 
what is fitting and beautiful for their ideal home. 



THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL 5 

Moreover, such lessons reach into the real households. 
Many mothers have expressed their gratitude for them and 
have declared that a complete revolution in taste was in 
progress in their homes. 

The plan of lessons here presented is not supposed to be 
binding as to form or number. It merely suggests a con- 
venient way of presenting the matter, and may be adapted 
to individual requirements. 

The Character of the Lessons. — It is not intended to vie 
with the courses in Household Art given in the Technical 
Schools ; nor to present information to be given out to 
pupils as a set of directions for making a beautiful house ; 
but simply and solely to suggest to the teacher in the 
elementary school how she may help her pupils to know 
the meaning of the house beautiful, the house that will be 
the expression of whatever intelligence and cultivation the 
circumstances of their lives have made it possible for them 
to obtain. 

A Preface Suggested. — I should preface the lessons with 
a brief talk on the evolution of the modern house and the 
family social life. This should be quite general and in- 
formal. The object is not to give archaeological knowledge ; 
but simply to stimulate the intelligence and curiosity of the 
pupil and to create an interest in comparing the present 
with the past. 

TOPIC I 

The Construction of the House 

The First Essential. — Emphasize the fact that the first 
conditions of beauty are health and wholesomeness, and 
that a healthful, beautiful location, good construction, perfect 
drainage, perfect plumbing, and perfect sanitary conditions 
generally, are indispensable to the house beautiful. 







HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



The House Plan. — Talk with the pupils about the gen- 
eral plan of houses in their town or city. Have them 
sketch the ground plan. 

The plan presented in most cases will probably be the 
typical city house with the long entry, as indicated in Dia- 
gram 1. But in many of the newer houses the long entry is 
dispensed with, and a portion of the lower floor space taken 
for a small central hall, as indicated in Diagram 2. 

Question the pupils as to the position of water and gas 
pipes and house drain ; the height of cellar above ground, 
the height of rooms ; position of the house in regard to the 
points of the compass (to determine which rooms get sun- 
light) ; the kind of floors, and other woodwork. 

Let them make diagrams of the other floors. Sketch the 
plans on the blackboard. 

Indicate what improvements may be made in the ordinary 
house plan in the way of providing greater conveniences for 
the housekeeper, better accommodations for servants, a 
simplified arrangement of the plumbing about a central 
shaft in order to dispense, as far as possible, with hori- 
zontal pipes, and anything else that will make this a house 
practical and comfortable. 

All this can be made very simple and intelligible to 
young girls. A house plan of the simple character here 
suggested (a diagram, or outline of the floor plans without 
elevation) is no more difficult to deal with than an ordinary 
problem in mensuration, and the line of thought suggested 
will ultimately result in a better understanding of domestic 
architecture and a consequent demand for improvements 
in it. 

Until women are educated in these things builders will 
not cease to depend on loudly decorated walls, mantel 
overshelves with wonderful combinations of little balus- 
trades, looking glass and cheap mouldings, stationary 



THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL 7 

wardrobes with glued-on ornaments, and other such surface 
attractions, to sell or rent houses that have poor woodwork, 
bad floors, and worse plumbing. And legislation on sani- 
tary matters can never be made thoroughly operative until 
women understand the principles of sanitation and enforce 
the laws in the home. 

Valuable hints on construction and sanitation will be 
found in " Home Sanitation," a little handbook prepared by 
the Association of Collegiate Alumnae. 

More than one lesson may be needed on the present 
topic. Pupils may have very hazy ideas as to the outlines 
of rooms, the position of pipes, etc., and even as to how the 
gas and water get into the house. 

Having constructed our ideal house, we will proceed to 
furnish it. The plan suggested in Diagram 2 has been 
chosen for the obvious advantages it offers of illustrating 
certain principles in furnishing. The next lesson will con- 
sider the vestibule. 

TOPIC II 
The Vestibule 

Ask the purpose of the vestibule, and try to get the 
pupils to state what the purpose would naturally dictate 
as to furnishing and decorating. 

Have patience to draw them out. They have never 
thought much about so commonplace a subject. 

Conditions to be dealt with. — Finally it will be answered 
that the vestibule is a part of the entrance to the house 
designed to protect the inner entrance and at times to 
shelter some one waiting. Then it can easily be estab- 
lished : — 

Conclusions drawn from Facts. — 1. That as this part of the 
entrance is most of the time exposed to the weather, it 
should be and appear to be weather-proof. 



8 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 





N9 1 



N° £ 



THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL 9 

2. That as it serves to give one entering, the first impres- 
sion of the abode and its inhabitants, therefore it should be 
pleasing and scrupulously neat and clean. 

3. That as those entering receive but a passing impres- 
sion, any elaborate decoration would be wasted ; moreover, 
as the place stands open to public view, such decoration 
would not be in good taste. 

Discuss the materials that would best meet all these 
conditions. 

The conclusions reached will be something like the 
following : — 

Suggestions for Furnishing. 

The Floor. — 1. The floor should be covered with some 
weather-proof material, preferably marble, or tiles. If 
these are too expensive, linoleum may be used. 

Side Walls. — 2. For the lower side walls the first choice 
would be marble, or tiles, corresponding to the floor. The 
second choice, hard plaster. If wood must be used, it should 
be treated so as to be weather-proof. 

The side walls above the wainscoting should be, prefera- 
bly, hard plaster. This should be tinted in some subdued 
flat color, as lapis-lazuli blue, pale green, or pearly gray. 

A very pretty and suitable decoration is made by outlin- 
ing panels on the side walls with strips of moulding. These 
may be painted in contrasting color or left in the natural 
state if of hard wood (explain this term). 

Lighting. — For lighting, a gas fixture (or electric fixture) 
in the form of a lantern is most suitable. (Ask why.) 

The conclusions may be gathered up by the teacher and 
written on the board at first. 

Gathering up the Threads. — Enough time should be left 
of each lesson period to allow the pupils to write out an 
abstract of the lesson in their note-books. These should 
be carefully examined and corrected; but pupils should 



10 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

be encouraged to express their own preferences and 
opinions. 

At this stage the pupils will have become acquainted with 
the method of reasoning, and the subject of the next lesson 
may be given out. This means that students are expected 
to give some thought to the matter and to make all possible 
observations and bring suggestions to class. 

TOPIC III 

The First Floor Suite 

The Hall 

Satisfy yourself that the pupils have a clear mental pic- 
ture of the space under consideration. 

Matters to be Considered. 

Discussion. — 1. The purposes of the hall and of each of 
the adjoining rooms — say there are two. 

2. What common sense dictates as to the furnishing of 
these rooms. What limitations are imposed upon us by the 
fact that these three rooms open upon each other. 

3. The treatment of the floor, the walls, the ceiling. 

4. The movable furnishings. 

Conclusions. — The needs and preferences of the family 
must determine the purposes to which these or any other 
rooms are to be put. 

Builders seem to have intended the hall for a sort of 
living room, as they have given us a chimney place in it ; 
but there can be no privacy for the family in a passageway, 
which this really is — so we had better decide to furnish it 
as a hall. 

Like the vestibule, the hall serves to give some intimation 
of the general tone of refinement, or the lack of it, that one 
may look for in the occupants of the house. It is less formal 



THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL 11 

than the vestibule, as it shuts out the gaze of the world ; but 
it is still outside of the real life of the home. Therefore, 
while it may be made quite bright, or even gay in tone, it 
must yet be somewhat formal. The room opening off to the 
front of the house may be taken for a living room ; that on 
the other side, for a dining room. 

We have a rather difficult problem — three rooms each 
having different uses yet coming together almost as one 
room. The use, the light, the woodwork, must all be con- 
sidered in furnishing. 

The Function of Floor and Walls in Decoration. — It is 
most important to secure harmony of effect in the color 
scheme. For this we must begin with the floors and the 
walls. These are the background for the furniture, and no 
matter how fine or beautiful our movables may be, the 
effect of all may be ruined by a bad arrangement of color 
in the background. With the color scheme right, however, 
the simplest and most inexpensive of furnishings may 
present a charming effect. 

The floors then should be of uniform color throughout — 
if of good hard lumber and well laid, they may be left in the 
natural color, treated with oil or paraffin, and kept rubbed 
smooth and shining. Even rather inferior floors may be filled 
and stained and then treated in a way suitable to the wood. 

(Samples of different woods should be shown the pupils, 
and directions given for the treatment suitable to each.) 

Suggestions for Furnishing. 

The Floors. — Rugs suited to the purposes of each room 
should be used. If Turkish rugs in rich, soft colors are too 
expensive, there are excellent Japanese and domestic rugs 
at lower prices. Rugs made of lengths of Brussels carpet 
are pretty and durable. In making a selection give first 
thought to the color. Avoid violent contrasts and figures 
that stand out obtrusively. 



12 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

The Color of the Walls. — If there are large openings from 
the hall to the other rooms, select the papers for the three 
rooms at the same time and with reference to each other. 
We might for instance select a lighter shade of terra-cotta 
for the hall and darker shades of the same color for the 
other two rooms. Or a somewhat rich figured paper might 
be selected for the hall and harmonizing plain papers for 
the other two rooms. 

In figured papers dignified designs should be used — those 
in vertical " repeats " of a climbing character, in which the 
figures melt into the background and do not stand out 
offensively. 

Principles governing Selection. 

Light and Mass. — Note that dark surfaces absorb light, 
w r hereas light surfaces reflect it. Also note that paper on 
the wall in mass is at least four shades darker than in the 
hand. Bear this in mind. In the matter of wall papers 
one is too prone to buy in haste and repent at leisure. 

The Principle of Gradation. — We must observe the prin- 
ciple of gradation in forming our background of floor and 
walls ; viz. the floors should be darkest — the strongest 
tones of color belong at the base; the walls should take the 
next tone lighter ; the ceiling, the lightest. A frieze, carry- 
ing up the tone of the wall in lighter tint, should be finished 
with a picture rod the same color as the woodwork of the 
room. 

Have a good supply of samples of wall paper, mould- 
ings, fabrics of various colors, etc., for illustration, and let 
the pupils arrange and study various combinations of color 
and material. If you encourage them to do their own 
thinking and seeing, the power to judge correctly will grow 
rapidly. 

The Furniture. — Instead of the conventional hall stand 
we may use a neatly framed mirror with pegs for hats, 



THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL 13 

and a polished wood bench or settee with the seat in the 
form of a box. Or the settee may be a strong willow one, 
with a cushion or two in accord with the general color 
scheme. 

One or two substantial hall chairs, a table for magazines, 
a vase for flowers and a tray for cards, and a porcelain 
jar of good color, for holding sticks and umbrellas, complete 
the necessary furniture of the hall. 

The Staircase. — The staircase forms part of the furnish- 
ing, and should carry out the general plan. 

Decorations. — A few good pictures, decorative in charac- 
ter, may be used here. 

A few plants suitable for indoors will serve to brighten 
the place ; but we must see that they are well cared for. 

As this room gets but little light, let the window curtain 
be a mere transparent screen set against the glass. 

TOPIC IV 

The First Floor Suite {Continued) 

The Dining Eoom 

Discussion. — 1. The meaning of this room in the social 
life of the family. 

2. The character of the furnishings. 

Conclusions. — It is here that the family, separated in 
their daily pursuits, meet together for social cheer. All 
should be serene and peaceful. Xo personal differences 
should be allowed to mar the general harmony. The 
surroundings should accord with the spirit. Cheerfulness 
should beam from every point. 

Furniture. — The furniture should be simple and sub- 
stantial : — a table standing firmly on its If gs ; chairs cane- 
seated or of other material easily kept clean ; china closet 



14 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

shining and well kept; a sideboard or table in keeping 
with the other pieces. 

Decorations. — For adornment, a wainscoting carried well 
up on the walls may be finished with a plate rail on which 
may rest plates and plaques of good color. The mantel- 
piece may hold a piece of pottery or a cast, and some 
simple candelabra. Admit no meaningless ornaments. 

Spotless table linen and neat dishes — they may be prettily 
decorated and yet cheap — are the crowning adornments of 
this room. 

Historical Sketch. — It will add to the interest of this 
lesson to note that a separate room for taking meals — now 
a part of the house plan of even the workingman's home, 
is one of the luxuries of modern life. Even a generation 
ago old-fashioned people in England and America used 
their dining rooms as living rooms. In the Middle Ages the 
nobleman and his servants ate in the hall. The tables con- 
sisted of boards resting on trestles. The seats were narrow 
benches or stools so made that they could be easily carried 
away when the meal was over. The meals eaten in private 
were served in the lord's chamber. The mediaeval chamber 
developed into a private suite of living rooms, the outer one 
of which came to be used as the family dining room.* 

TOPIC V 

The Living Eoom 

Tradition vs. Individuality. — We have decided to give 
this name to the room on the opposite side of the hall. 
The needs and means of the family must really determine 
its use. No mere tradition as to what has been customary, 
or fancy as to what our neighbors might expect us to 

* "The Decoration of Houses." — Wharton and Codman. 



THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL 15 

have, ought to weigh one feather's weight with us in 
determining how we shall use any room in our house. 
If the family is small and can afford to keep this as a 
company or reception room, it may be furnished daintily 
and used for that purpose. Otherwise it is folly and 
extravagance to stint the rest of the household appoint- 
ments for the sake of furnishing a room with things 
too good to be used — a room from which every member 
of the family flees the moment the company leaves. 

Discussion. — 1. The furnishings that will best serve the 
purposes for which this room is to be used. 

2. Inexpensive materials that produce good effects. 

3. The management of the color scheme. 
Conclusions. 

Suggestions for Furnishing. — 1. A firm, generous table 
that will hold books, magazines, and lamps ; a comfortable 
divan with numerous pillows ; plenty of easy chairs ; plain, 
well-made bookcases or sets of shelves ; and perhaps a corner 
cabinet in which to place objects of beauty and value. 
A few good pictures, — only good ones are worth looking 
at all the time ; and an ornament or two of good form, — 
a vase, a cast or any object that is beautiful in color 
and form and made in suitable materials. 

Artistic Effects with Inexpensive Materials. — 2. Strong 
willow chairs and couches with movable cushions may 
be used with good effect. The hangings in the room 
and the covers on the seat cushions may be of the same 
color and material. This gives a pleasing effect of unity. 
Denims are very satisfactory for this purpose; and when 
the hangings are ornamented with a bold embroidery 
of a white floss thread on the borders, the effect is 
charming. 

The Color Scheme. — 3. We must remember that the floors 
and the walls have already been decided upon, and the 



16 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

colors used must be such as will make no discord with 
this background. Choose the dominant tone of color in 
your room and keep everything else in accord with it. 

Eead with the pupils from Professor Morse's " Japanese 
Homes and their Surroundings/' some descriptions of 
Japanese interiors. While we need not feel bound to prune 
our ideas to the simple severity of furnishing adhered to by 
the Japanese, we may be instructed by the elegance, refine- 
ment, and serenity of mind expressed in their surroundings. 

TOPIC VI 
The Bedrooms 

The Attitude of the Teacher in these Lessons. — The most 
important principles of household furnishing have now been 
illustrated. -Keep these principles clearly in your own mind 
and make each succeeding lesson illustrate them, leading 
the pupils to deduce them from the facts offered. In the end 
they should be able to formulate them and write them out 
in such shape as will impress them upon their minds. Of 
course the principles are the only really important things in 
the lessons. House furnishing is not an exact science. ISTo 
hard and fast rules can be laid down as to how any one 
should furnish one's house. It should be an expression of 
one's own personal character and liking guided by the fun- 
damental principles of good taste. The sole purpose of these 
lessons is to elucidate and inculcate these principles. 

Serious Considerations. 

Discussion. — 1. The sanitary requirements of the bed- 
room; why sun is more necessary here than in any other 
room in the house. 

2. The furnishings consistent with sanitary requirements. 

3. The adornments expressive of the individuality of the 
occupant. 



THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL 17 

A Test for the Pupils. — Instead of formulating the " con- 
clusions " as in previous lessons, test the impression made 
by your teaching by letting the pupils write a description 
of a bedroom that shall satisfy all sanitary and artistic 
requirements. Let them call it "My Bedroom. " It may 
be wholly imaginary of course. Head the best of the 
descriptions in class and supply any missing points. 

Suggestion. — Give a brief historical sketch of the develop- 
ment of the bedroom, — its outgrowth as an escape from 
the promiscuity of the hall ; its division into the company 
chamber (or drawing-room) and the actual sleeping room, 
which was, however, used as the family living room and as 
the scene of suppers, card parties, etc., and sometimes even 
as the kitchen. 

This sketch may be gathered from "The Decoration of 
Houses/' by Edith Wharton and Ogden Codman. 

TOPIC VII 
The Bath-room 

Discussion. — 1. Sanitary principles and requirements. 

2. Moors and walls. 

3. Furnishing. 
Conclusions. 

Sanitary Requirements. — 1. All pipes must be exposed 
and easily accessible ; all waste pipes trapped and ventilated ; 
all fixtures set on legs or brackets ; no woodwork that can 
possibly be dispensed with. 

Suggestions for Furnishing. 

Floor and Walls. — 2. A tiled floor if possible ; linoleum 
the next choice ; small rugs which can be easily dried. 

Walls, tiled or painted. Paper is not desirable even 
when varnished. A hard wood wainscoting simply oiled, 



18 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

and walls and ceiling painted in uniform tint is excellent. 
A stencilled frieze, or border above the wainscoting, of 
very simple design, adds to the attractiveness of the room. 

Plumbing Fixtures. 

Furnishings. — 3. A porcelain-lined or an enamelled-iron 
tub is indispensable. 

A porcelain closet with no wood about it excepting the 
seat. No cover is needed. 

A washstand set on legs or brackets. 

Conveniences. — A neat rail with hooks, a towel-rack, and 
sets of shelves for small articles complete the necessary 
furnishings. 

Ventilation. — Let everything be light — white if possible 
— and let the windows be free to admit air top and bottom. 

TOPIC VIII 
The Kitchen 

The First Consideration. — Last though not least. In actual 
practice let it come first. Whatever money is left after the 
cellar and kitchen are furnished may be devoted to the other 
parts of the house. Leave " the parlor " to the last. If you 
make the kitchen as sweet and clean and pretty as it ought 
to be, you need not disdain to sit in it yourself nor to ask 
your friends to sit in it. If you doubt that a kitchen can 
be pretty, read the Vicar of Wakefield's description of his 
kitchen. Read the entire description of his house and see 
if you think it a Jiouse beautiful. 

Suggestions for Furnishing. 

The Floor. — If you are well off you may have a floor 
of tiles. The next best thing is a covering of linoleum. 

The Walls. — The walls should be of tiles, or of glazed 
brick, or of hard plaster painted with waterproof paint or 
varnished. 



THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL 19 

Cupboards. — The doors of the cupboards should be of 
glass or should be dispensed with entirely. There should be 
absolutely no hiding places for dust or vermin. Kitchen 
utensils are just as appropriate to the kitchen as candela- 
bra or vases to the parlor, and should be kept scrupu- 
lously clean and undisguisedly displayed there. 

Good Taste in the Kitchen. — Indeed, Mr. Morris used to 
say that our kitchens were about the only rooms in our 
houses furnished in good taste, because all the articles there 
are " of good shape, declare their use, and are appropriate to 
it." This is one of the fundamental principles of true 
decoration. 

Indispensables. — A good, large, firm table for the use of 
the cook, wall strips with hooks for hanging her utensils 
within reach, and a few good strong, plain chairs, are indis- 
pensable furnishings. 

The Sink and its Surroundings. — All the water and gas 
pipes should be exposed to view and all sinks set on legs 
or brackets. Have no closets under the sinks. 

Even with moderate means a few tiles could be afforded 
to floor the space about the sink. Let them be white — 
gleaming white as everything about the plumbing should be 
— so that it will betray the first sign of uncleanliness. 

Suggestions about Additional Lessons. — It is scarcely 
necessary to carry the illustrations farther as to separate 
rooms. The pupils may be required to continue the work, 
applying the principles and laws advanced. The proper 
furnishing of the servant's room should be considered equal 
in importance to that of any other room in the house. 
Closets, store-rooms, etc., should also be considered. 

Review the general principles illustrated up to this point 
and add suggestions as to dealing with conditions not 
hitherto considered — such as furnishing a rented house 



20 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

where we encounter obstacles to the application of right 
principles. This may occupy a separate lesson. 

TOPIC IX 
Making the Best of It 

Our ideal house was above the average of ordinary houses 
— with fairly good woodwork, good sanitary conditions, 
and no obstacles in the shape of offensive wall decorations 
and stationary furniture. 

Until a new era dawns in domestic architecture the 
woman who knows the good from the bad, but is compelled 
to live in rented flats will meet with many discouragements, 
and will be forced to exercise all her ingenuity and philoso- 
phy in making the best of it. 

The First Thing to be Done. — Having chosen the least 
objectionable house we can find, we will attack the floors 
and woodwork, fill up the dust-holding cracks and make 
all as clean and smooth as possible. 

Dealing with Obstacles. — If there is a long narrow entry, 
or rooms of similar shape to deal with, we must study what 
furnishings will best modify the unpleasing proportions. 

If the walls and ceilings are covered with an objectionable 
figured paper, somewhat dark, a pale carpet will lower the 
stud and produce an impression of top heaviness and gloom ; 
whereas a dark, rich carpet will do much to lighten the 
effect. If we have a light carpet that we must use, some- 
thing will be gained by staining the floor, making the light 
carpet into a rug and using as little of it as possible. 

We may further relieve the effect of an obtrusive paper 
by using plain masses of color in hangings and furniture 
cushions. Using the same color and materials in hangings 
and furniture produces an impression of unity and tends to 
give an air of spaciousness. 



THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL 21 

Right Principles in the Selection of Color. — Select for each 
room the color that will best accord with the background of 
floor and wall and let that be the dominant tone, making 
all else accord with it. So far as possible use warm colors 
for north and west rooms, and cool colors for south and east 
rooms. The fewer colors used the more pleasing and rest- 
ful is the impression produced. 

If a papering is very bad in color or pattern take it off 
and repaper the walls. It is not difficult work, and many a 
woman has done it. 

Aids to the Cultivation of Taste. — In general, avoid deco- 
ration schemes offered in the papers and magazines. Master 
the few principles of good taste and test your individual 
likings by them. We do not always, without training, like 
the best. It would be a good plan to turn from time to 
time to Owen Jones's "Grammar of Ornament" and read 
over the " General Principles in the Arrangement of Form 
and Color." They are easily understood and many of them 
apply directly to the decoration of the home. 

A Word to the Teacher. — The process of house furnishing, 
which is really a simple and intelligible thing, has been 
complicated by the endeavor to follow the fashions prevail- 
ing at various times. At present a feeling of more indepen- 
dence is growing up; do all in your power to strengthen 
this feeling in your pupils. 

Necessary Lessons. — The lessons should include instruc- 
tion in the systematic care of the house ; they should also 
embrace the subject of materials to the extent of giving the 
housekeeper such knowledge as will enable her to tell good 
quality from bad, and to know the best way of caring for 
each article of furniture and adornment. 



22 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

TOPIC X 

The Use and Abuse of Ornament 

Trashy ornament and fancy articles are among the most 
formidable enemies to the formation of taste. We must 
therefore try to inculcate some right ideas upon this subject. 

The Universality of Ornament. — Call attention to the uni- 
versality of ornament. The doors, the windows, the desks 
in the school, the furniture in the home, the vehicles on the 
streets, every article of common use — all have some mould- 
ing, or turning, or carving, or trimming which has nothing 
to do with the actual use of the object, but which is in- 
tended solely for ornament — to make the objects more 
pleasing to those who use them — and, it should be, to those 
who make them. 

If we look about us in our homes we can see how many 
useless, meaningless things we have — things which can 
afford us no lasting pleasure, and which could have given 
none to the makers. 

Things in which Ornament interferes with Use. — There are 
the cushions, pillows, and footstools beaded, spangled, and 
befrilled so that we carefully push them aside when we are 
in need of such things; there are the monstrous lamp-shades 
of silk and lace, or crimped paper, which threaten nightly 
conflagrations and serve to produce spasms of apprehension 
in those who attempt to make a light ; chairs too fine to use, 
and many another monument to wasted money and labor. 

A Waste of Fine Materials. — Then there are the fancy arti- 
cles in which fine materials are misused to represent forms 
utterly incongruous with those materials ; such as red velvet 
fiddles and banjos with gold cord strings (note others at the 
fancy goods counters at holiday seasons). 

Things in the Wrong Place. — There are strange conceits 



THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL 23 

in table appliances : such as coal-scuttles and buckets for 
sugar holders ; beehives and tubs for butter dishes; silver 
owls, with myriads of cruel holes punched in their heads, 
for pepper and salt dusters. — Surely no real pleasure can 
be taken in such things, and they are less convenient than 
the plain simple vessels whose places they have usurped. 

Meaningless Trifles. — Then there are the meaningless 
trifles we set about on our tables and shelves for " orna- 
ments " — such as vases and tea-cups that will hold nothing; 
tea-pots in the forms of birds and dragons, and numberless 
other absurdities. 

A Test of Fitness. — I do not mean to say that we may not 
have ornaments of fine workmanship and material made in 
any of these forms, but the vase must be adapted to hold 
flowers and the cup to hold tea, because holding something 
is the office of these things ; we may also have ornaments 
in the forms of birds and dragons, but they should not be 
turned into tea-pots. This is Mr. Morris's meaning when 
he declares, "No article is beautiful unless it is also useful." 

These lists can be multiplied and a great deal of harmless 
amusement gotten out of them. 

Simplicity and Economy. — Make a strong plea for sim- 
plicity and economy in the household. Apart from the 
question of good taste, the superfluous articles with which 
we load our houses add to the burden of whoever has to 
care for them and take money which could be better spent. 

The " Lesser Arts." — It will add to the interest and value 
of the lesson to picture those times in the world's history 
when it was consciously sought to make the common things 
of life beautiful ; when the potter, the carver, the metal 
worker, the weaver, the embroiderer were all artists in their 
way. We speak of their work as the " lesser arts - as com- 
pared with the statue and the painting ; but there was no 
such separation between them as there is to-day. Many of 



24 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

the great painters were goldsmiths, and many of the sculp- 
tors, stone carvers. Botticelli decorated the panels of linen 
closets. Benvenuto Cellini chiselled book clasps and drink- 
ing cups. The renowned Dutch painter, Hans Holbein, 
decorated the fronts of houses and painted fashion-plates 
for ladies' costumes. 

Show pictures illustrating these facts, and wherever pos- 
sible visit museums that contain beautiful examples of 
household furniture or ornament. 

The Truths summed up. — Gather up the vital truths of 
this lesson in some such statements as the following : — 

1. It is one function of art to give pleasure in the common 
things of life by giving them beauty of form, of pattern, and 
of color. 

2. Decoration must never interfere with use. 

3. The first law of good taste is fitness; and no amount 
of beauty in the material or of excellence in the workman- 
ship can compensate for a lack of this quality in an object 
of decoration. 

4. Lasting pleasure can be found only in thoroughly use- 
ful and well-constructed things, made out of good and 
suitable material, appearing in their appropriate places and 
fulfilling their proper uses. 

5. Keep nothing in your house that is not either useful 
or beautiful. 

Bead, and let the pupils read, a little book by Lucy Crane 
containing six lectures on "Art and the Formation of Taste." 
The first two lectures bear on the present subject, and are 
very interesting and suggestive. 

The teacher will find many suggestions — especially on 
the historical part of House Decoration — in Wharton and 
Codman's " The Decoration of Houses " (Scribner's, 1898). 

It need scarcely be said to the intelligent teacher that the 



THE HOUSE BEAUTIFUL 25 

hints on furnishing and decorating here given are not in- 
tended to be complete. Much has been omitted, partly from 
lack of space ; and partly because the information can easily 
be supplied by the teacher. 

The sole aim of the lessons is to arouse in the pupils a 
desire to make the home a place from which all beautiful 
influences shall emanate. And the sole aim of this chapter 
is to unfold to the teacher a plan that has been satisfactorily 
used by the writer. 

"It is not instruction but provocation that one mind can give 
to another" 



OCTOBER 

. I. THE KITCHEN 

II. ADVANCED COURSE : 
Starchy Foods and how to cook them 

By ABBY LILLIAN MARLATT, M.Sc, 

Member of the American Chemical Society, 

Late Professor of Domestic Science in the Utah Agricultural College, 

now Teacher of Domestic Science in Manual Training High School, 

Providence, R.I. 



CHAPTER II 

THE KITCHEN 

The Kitchex in Art 

Dutch Kitchen, Maes, London ; Dutch Kitchen, Dou, Louvre, Paris ; 
The Spinner, Dou, Munich ; AngeVs Kitchen, Murillo, Louvre, Paris. 

The Kitchen in Literature 

The Vicar of Wakefield, Chapter IV ; Adam Bede, Mrs. Poyser's 
Kitchen ; Private Life of the Romans, Preston and Dodge ; Outlines, 
M. C. Ames, p. 200 ; Lippincott's Magazine, Vol. 2, p. 312 ; Cosmo- 
politan Magazine, May, 1899. 

The School Kitchen 

Boston School Kitchen, American Kitchen Magazine, Vol. 5, p. 211 ; 
Model School Kitchen, Vol. 6, p. 260. 

Equipment. — The kitchen must be so planned and 
equipped that it will be easy to keep it (1) clean, (2) well 
ventilated and fairly cool. 

1. (a) It should not be too large. 

(b) The floor should be tiled; or of hard wood, oiled, 
with all cracks filled with plaster ; or if the floor is an old 
one and of the kind impossible to keep clean without hours 
of labor, then cover it with linoleum. The use of a carpet 
cannot be defended. 

No cracks should be allowed to exist either in the floor 
itself or, worst of all, at the junction of the mopboard and 
floor. 

29 



30 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

(c) All woodwork should be oiled and should be without 
ledges to catch the dust and dirt. 

(d) The walls must either be painted or else covered 
with a washable paper. 

(e) The sink should be of soapstone or else of iron, 
porcelain lined. If a wooden sink must be used, line it 
with zinc. Whatever the material, it must never be en- 
closed. The pipes must be in full view and painted white. 
For traps see the section on cleaning. 

The sink should be broad at one end and there should be 
a draining shelf, inclining slightly toward the sink. 

(/) Tables neatly covered with white enamel cloth save 
much labor ; but their use necessitates several smooth, 
hard wood boards, or asbestos mats, on which to place the 
hot dishes used in cooking. 

2. The kitchen windows should be large, easily opened 
above and below, and entirely screened. There ought to 
be other means of carrying off the odor of cooking. The 
modern kitchens make use of the laboratory expedient and 
cook under a hood ventilated into the flue of the chimney. 

Furniture. — The range is the most important piece of 
furniture and should be the best possible. It is discussed 
in full later. 

The cooking utensils are made of iron, of steel, of enam- 
elled ware, of aluminium, of tin, of wood, of glass, of stone- 
ware, of earthenware, and common crockery. 

The advantage of iron and steel for cooking dishes is 
that they are not injured by a high temperature, and that 
they grow smoother with use; but they cannot be used 
in cooking foods containing an acid, — fruits, for example. 
They are heavy, too, and need extra care to keep them free 
from rust. 

Enamelled ware, if of the best quality, is very satisfactory. 
The basis is iron on which is fused the enamel at a high 



THE KITCHEN 31 

temperature. But do not be persuaded into buying "sec- 
onds." 

Cheap tinware is poor sheet-iron plated with a thin layer 
of tin. This soon wears off and the iron beneath rusts. 

Block tin, however, which is made of sheet tin, may be 
depended upon to wear well. It is expensive in its first 
cost, but economical in the long run. 

The advantage of tinware lies in its lightness, and its 
disadvantage is that it melts at a comparatively low tem- 
perature. For this reason it should never be used for 
frying, nor put on the fire without having the bottom 
covered with some liquid. 

Woodenware is light, but absorbs grease and odors. 
For this reason it should be used as little as possible. But 
there is nothing better for stirring than a wooden spoon. 

Method. — As a preparation for the study of the kitchen, 
the girls might be required to bring in plans of the home 
kitchen, lists of the utensils, classifying them according to 
the materials from which they are made. 

Exhibitions of various articles in bad condition will be 
useful, provided they are made a means of leading them to 
see the causes that have led to their destruction and the 
means by which it might have been avoided. 

The object of this preliminary lesson is to interest the 
girls in the kitchen and to make them, unconsciously to 
themselves, study that room in their own house. 

This chapter has been divided into two sections : the first 
of which deals with heat, combustion, fuel, fire, and the 
range; and the second with cleaning, including a slight 
study of plumbing. 



! 



32 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

SECTION I 

Fire 

bibliography 

Fire. — Creation Myths of Primitive America, Curtin ; Old Greek 
Stories, Baldwin (The Story of Prometheus) ; Open Fireplace in All 
Ages, Putnam ; The Sun, Young ; Text-book of Physics, Hall and 
Bergen ; Chemistry in Daily Life, Lassar and Cohn ; Organic Chem- 
istry and Inorganic Chemistry, Remsen ; Heating and Ventilating 
Buildings, Carpenter ; Fire Worship, Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 
10, p. 17 ; Public Opinion, Vol. 14, p. 251 ; Evolution of Methods of 
Heating and Cooking, American Kitchen Magazine, Vol. 3, p. 51 ; 
History of the Fireplace, Chambers's Journal, Vol. 3. 

Heat 

Facts : History of Fire. — Man has been defined as the 
cooking animal, as he alone seems to have produced heat by 
artificial means. Earliest historical records show that fire 
was known and used by primitive man, and to-day there is 
no tribe, however savage, that does not understand its use. 

Early Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans had their 
public fire kept constantly burning, while in our continent 
the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians had their sacred fires 
on large pyramids. Early religions held the fire as a sacred 
symbol of the greater source of all heat, the sun. Greek 
mythology tells of the bringing of fire from the sun's chariot 
by Prometheus, and the punishment which followed the 
sacrilege. So sacred was fire that the priests or the vestal 
virgins, whose duty it was to watch the fires, were held in 
awe by the populace. 

Theories of Heat. — Heat was at one time considered a 
material substance which might enter into or depart from a 
body, and the terms which to-day are used in discussing heat 
were based on this erroneous idea of heat's material existence. 



THE KITCHEN 33 

Nature of Heat. — It is now believed that every physical 
body consists of a mass of minute particles, individual, invisi- 
ble, called molecules, which are in a state of constant motion, 
and that a rise in temperature is accompanied by an increased 
motion and consequent friction among these molecules. 

By friction of one body upon another we may so set up 
motion in these particles that the temperature will be in- 
creased as shown by the melting of ice when one piece is 
violently rubbed upon another, or by the heat manifested 
when one piece of wood is rubbed briskly against another. 

Temperature. — The rate of motion of these particles is 
proportional to the intensity of the heat. This heat in- 
tensity may be measured by a thermometer and is called 
temperature. There will be a heat not sensible by the ther- 
mometer, and known as latent heat. Because of this latent 
heat the temperature of a body does not indicate the amount 
of heat contained in it any more than the height of a body 
would alone determine its weight. 

Latent Heat. — The amount of latent heat is dependent on 
the property of the body to ^absorb heat without showing 
any change in temperature. As an example, may be noted 
the heat necessary to evaporate water by rapid boiling while 
all the time the temperature of the water remains unchanged. 
The radiant energy of the sun — supposed to be the source 
of all possible energy in matter, may be shown by concen- 
trating the sun's rays on white paper by means of a convex 
lens; and noting the charred effect or even the flame pro- 
duced if the sunshine is bright enough. 

It is computed that were the sun to be extinguished, all 
terrestrial life, in less than a month, would cease to exist. 
This radiant energy, coming as it does in waves produced by 
molecular motion in the ether, is stored up in animal and 
vegetable life to be liberated when consumed either as food 
or as fuel. 



34 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

During this consumption the compounds are changed into 
much simpler products, potential energy being liberated as 
work or as heat. 

Method. — Discuss the source of all heat — the sun. 

Experiment 1. Eub two sticks together briskly or rub 
two pieces of ice together. 

Experiment 2. Place cold water in a large flask. Drop 
into it a cube of litmus or a crystal of potassium permanga- 
nate. Apply heat from underneath. The flask may stand 
on asbestos mat over gas flame. Let the pupil watch the 
motion in the liquid. 

Experiment 3. Apply cloth wet in boiling water to neck 
of bottle, in which a glass stopper is tightly fitted, or loosen 
cover of Mason fruit jar in same way. 

Experiment 4. Concentrate the sun's rays with convex 
lens upon black paper or paper smoked by gas or candle 
flame ; concentrate rays upon white paper. Note the effect 
on each. Explain the absorbing power of lampblack or any 
other black substance. 

Experiment 5. Apply heat from gas flame to one end of 
brass or steel wire on which, at regular intervals, are fastened 
small shot held in position with warm paraffin. As the heat 
is transmitted the melting of the fat causes shot to fall. 

Let the pupils perform these experiments individually if 
this is possible. Be sure not only that they see the result, 
but also that they understand the deductions to be made 
from these results, and above all the general principles thus 
illustrated. 

Combustion 

Facts. — The liberation of energy when accompanied by 
the evolution of light and heat, or heat alone, is known as 
combustion. In the restricted sense combustion is produced 
whenever the oxygen of the air unites with another element 
or compound with consequent evolution of heat. The heat 



THE KITCHEN 35 

and light obtained from combustion is a result of oxidation 
of carbon or hydrogen or both. These, therefore, are the 
essential elements in fuels. The oxygen present in some 
fuels, as in wood, is inert in the sense that it may not take 
an active part in the production of heat. 

Since as far as is known nothing in the physical world is 
ever destroyed, during this consumption of fuel new com- 
binations of the elements hydrogen and carbon with the 
oxygen of the air must be formed and pass off as simpler 
and usually invisible compounds. Smoke, which often ac- 
companies combustion of carbon, is not a compound, but 
carbon in a finely divided state — a result of deficient supply 
of oxygen, and hence due to lack of perfect oxidation. 

Products of Combustion., C0 2 , CO, H 2 0. — When the union 
of carbon with oxygen is not restricted by a limited supply 
of air, the resulting product is carbon dioxid, formerly 
called carbonic acid gas. When the supply of air is very 
limited, the product formed is carbon monoxid — a very 
poisonous gas. It is formed in hard coal stoves whenever 
the air supply is restricted by closing the drafts and may 
be seen in a state of combustion as pale blue flame hovering 
over the glowing coal. Carbon monoxid is also a part of 
what is known as water gas. The union of the hydrogen 
in the fuel with the oxygen in the air produces water, which 
as water vapor passes with the other products of oxidation 
into the atmosphere. 

Hydrogen. — Hydrogen ignites at a much lower tempera- 
ture than carbon, about 300° F. The heat of the flame pro- 
duced is great, but there is almost no light produced. 

Carbon. — On the other hand, carbon when ignited glows 
but does not produce a true flame, at most only a blue flame, 
which may be due to the oxidation of carbon monoxid into 
carbon dioxid. 

When the two are burned together they produce a lumi- 



36 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

nous flame, the light being due to the incandescent condition 
of finely divided carbon. This may be shown by holding a 
piece of porcelain in the flame of a candle or by sifting pow- 
dered lampblack or charcoal into the flame of the Bunsen 
burner. Hence flame to give light as well as heat must be 
produced by a fuel containing carbon and hydrogen. 

Ash. — Aside from smoke, solid fuel leaves another visible 
residue known as ashes or ash. Ash is composed of mineral 
matter taken from the soil by the vegetation during growth. 
It is a very poor conductor of heat, absorbing it in large 
quantities. Smoke has the same effect, hence their presence 
is detrimental if great heat is to be radiated. The effect of 
retention of heat by ashes may be illustrated by cooking an 
egg or a potato by burying it in the hot ashes. The lack of 
conducting power may be shown by placing cool ashes on 
the palm of the hand so that it will be thickly covered and 
then placing a live coal upon it. 

Essentials for Combustion. — There are three essentials for 
perfect combustion : — 

I. A supporter of combustion. 

II. A combustible. 

III. Sufficient heat to cause a union between the combus- 
tible and the supporter of combustion. 

Supporter. — The supporter of combustion is nearly always 
oxygen as found in the mixture air. The other constituents 
of air are all inert substances retarding combustion, or when 
present in excess preventing it. Hence the necessity of 
removing exhausted air and the products of combustion as 
soon as formed. Their deadening action is utilized in chem- 
ical fire engines. A larger proportion of oxygen in the air 
would render life very much less safe. " Spontaneous com- 
bustion " would then be the rule rather than the exception. 

Method. — Combustion. 

Material. — Candle, glass rod and tube, lime water. 



THE KITCHEN 37 

A. Historical Data. 

(a) Mythological stories. 

Greek. 

American myths. 
(6) Remains of prehistoric man. 
(c) Methods of ignition. 

Friction or striking flint. 

B. Chemistry of Combustion. 

Experiment 6. Let each pupil observe the com- 
bustion of : — 

A common match. 

A parlor match. 

A safety match. 
And then tell what she has observed as to produc- 
tion of flame, method of burning, as well as odor. 
See the account of matches under the section on 
fuels. Light a long splint and insert it into a dry 
test-tube. Let pupils tell the reason for the flame 
being extinguished. 
Essentials for Combustion. 

(a) A combustible. 

(b) A supporter of combustion. 

(c) Heat. 
Composition of Air. 

Experiment 7. Invert an empty bottle over a lighted 
candle standing in a dish of water. Let the mouth 
of bottle rest below the water. As air in bottle 
has its oxygen exhausted by the burning candle, the 
water rises to take its place. By withdrawing the 
candle without moving the bottle, and then slipping 
a piece of glass over mouth of bottle, it may be 
inverted, retaining the water which has replaced 
the oxygen or part burned out. By measuring 
the water and then measuring capacity of bottle. 



38 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

the ratio which supports combustion may be 
shown. 
C Flame. 

Experiment 8. Examine parts of a Bunsen burner, 

apply heat from heated wire to ignite the gas. 
(a) Carbon or yellow flame. 

Study parts of carbon flame. 
Hold cold porcelain in yellow flame and ex- 
amine the deposit. 
Save deposit for next experiment. 
(6) Oxygen or blue flame. 

Note parts of flame. 

Sift into flame part of black deposit from 

preceding experiment. 
Draw conclusions as to cause of color and 
of light in carbon flame. 
Composition of Blue Coxe. 

Experiment 9. Place one end of glass tube in blue 
cone of oxygen flame. Apply lighted match at the 
other end and note color of flame produced. 
Difference in Heating Power. 

Experiment 10. Hold one end of glass rod in car- 
bon flame and note length of time required to raise 
it to red heat. 
Hold the other end in oxygen flame. 
Compare results. 

Explain and state which flame is to be used in cooking. 
D. Products of Combustion. 

Experiment 11. Water. Hold cold porcelain or 
granite ware in blue flame of Bunsen burner for a 
minute. Note the moisture on the surface of dish. 
(Part of moisture is doubtless due to water in the 
gas.) 



THE KITCHEN 39 

Carbon Dioxid [C0 2 ]. 

Experiment 12. Light a pine splint, and when it is 
burning briskly lower the flame end into a dry 
empty bottle and partly cover the mouth with a 
cardboard. Let the pupils note the effect upon the 
lighted splinter. 

Eemove the splinter and add lime water to the bottle, 
shake and again examine. 

Experiment 13. Let pupil breathe through glass 
tube into lime water and see if results are similar. 

Explain necessity of removing C0 2 in both cases. 

Fuel 

When the combustible element or compound is cheap, it 
is known as a fuel. A fuel is usually carbon or a compound 
of carbon. 

Fuels may be divided into solids, as coal, wood, and prod- 
ucts derived from them, as charcoal and coke; liquids, as 
petroleum and its products, methyl and ethyl alcohol ; and 
gases, as natural gas, coal gas, water gas, and acetylene gas. 
Or they may be divided according to probable origin, as 
follows : 

I. Vegetable fuels, as wood, and products of wood dis- 
tillation, as methyl or wood alcohol, and charcoal. 

II. Mineral fuels, as coal, subdivided according to com^ 
position into peat, lignite, cannel coal, bituminous and 
anthracite; and products of coal distillation, as coal gas, 
water gas, and coke. 

III. Mineral oils and gases, as crude petroleum, from 
which are derived naphtha, gasolene, benzine, kerosene, and 
natural gas. 

IV. Product of fermentation known as ethyl alcohol. 
Wood. — Wood, or vegetable fibre, is composed largely of 



40 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

a carbohydrate, cellulose, which forms the cell wall of all 
plant life. It belongs to the carbohydrate group because of 
its composition; but man cannot use it to any extent for 
food, as he does most other members of the group. See 
chapter on Starches. 

Associated with the cellulose in wood are varying amounts 
of nitrogenous matter, resins, and coloring matters, as well 
as the mineral products which remain as ashes after com- 
bustion. In its pure state cellulose may be found in the 
form of Swedish filter paper. Less pure forms are cotton 
and linen. 

Though formerly wood served as the chief fuel, now in 
the cities it is used mainly as kindling and in fireplaces. 

Kinds of Wood. — In the markets, wood is roughly classed 
as either hard or soft. 

Soft Wood. — The soft woods, as pine, spruce, fir, hemlock, 
cedar, and red wood, because of lighter, more spongy tex- 
ture and large amount of resin, burn very freely, producing 
a quick, hot fire. They are therefore largely used as the 
kindling in coal stoves or ranges. The charcoal formed 
from soft wood is soft and crumbly. 

Hard Wood. — The harder woods, as oak, hickory, ash, 
chestnut, maple, birch, poplar, elm, and walnut, are much 
more dense in structure, contain no resin, and therefore 
require a higher degree of heat to ignite and are consumed 
more slowly, thus giving out heat for a much longer time. 
Because of the small amount of flame produced by combus- 
tion of these woods, and the large amount of charcoal 
formed, they are used in culinary operations where live 
coals are desired. 

A careful study of their woody structure, and of their 
condition in the way of dryness, freedom from decay or 
presence of insects, will aid the investigator in gaining 
information of economic value. If the wood is damp, then 



THE KITCHEN 41 

in the change of the sap or water into the form of vapor 
much heat becomes latent and is wasted, from a culinary 
standpoint. In the beginning of combustion of wood, during 
the flame stage, all of the hydrogen and part of the carbon 
pass off as water and as carbon dioxid, and much heat 
goes with them, the greater portion becoming latent in 
changing the water to steam. In the second or glowing 
coal stage, the waste product is carbon dioxid, which carries 
off little heat. Therefore the greater the proportion of car- 
bon in the wood, the higher its heating value. 

Charcoal. — Wood, when subjected to excessive heat with- 
out free access of air, gives up first of all its hydrogen and 
part of its carbon, mostly in the form of flame. The remain- 
der of the carbon is in the form of glowing charcoal. This 
charcoal is formed in greater or less amounts in all wood 
fires. If wood be subjected to heat without access of air, 
the hydrogen and other volatile products are driven off, 
leaving almost all of the carbon in a free state. The sup- 
ply of charcoal in the market is prepared in specially con- 
structed kilns, so arranged that, besides producing charcoal, 
the volatile products of wood distillation are retained. 

One of these products is known as methyl, or wood 
alcohol. As a rule, the denser the wood the greater the 
proportion of carbon and the more valuable the charcoal 
made from it, providing the charcoal is for use as fuel and 
not for use in the arts. Good charcoal is firm, free from 
dust, and should break across the fibre with a shining frac- 
ture. Charcoal is burned in warmer countries in portable 
stoves or fire-boxes, unprovided with either chimney or 
draft. These fire-pots are set in the upper part of crude 
masonry, thus forming a primitive range, each fire being 
separate. In this country charcoal is used to produce heat 
for broiling. 

The making of charcoal may be illustrated by heating 



42 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

pine splints in a test-tube and noting the products which 
are driven out of the wood and the condition of residue. 

Methyl alcohol, though belonging under head of wood 
products, will be discussed in connection with the topic 
ethyl alcohol. 

Mineral Fuel. — Coal is, as far as known, vegetable growth, 
transformed in the past ages in some way by heat and press- 
ure into a product richer in carbon and less rich in inflam- 
mable gases than wood. To judge from results, the process 
must have been one of slow distillation. 

Coal is found in certain geological formations, and only 
within certain limits is it within reach of man. These 
regions are known as coal fields. From these mines coal is 
transported to all sections of the country. 

Peat. — In our own day the beginnings of this change 
from plant growth into coal is shown in peat formation, 
where remains of plants in bogs or on the borders of shal- 
low pools fall and are covered by water and vegetable pulp 
which exclude the air. This, in connection with other fac- 
tors, prevents natural decay, and hence the mass continues 
to accumulate, becoming more dense from year to year. 
This partly transformed product is cut into thin oblong 
blocks, which are dried in the sun and used somewhat as 
coal is used. The flame produced, because of excess of hy- 
drocarbons, is smoky and disagreeable. 

For household use, coal is divided into the following 
kinds : peat, lignite, cannel, bituminous, non-bituminous, 
semi-bituminous, and anthracite. 

Lignite. — Lignite is that coal formation which still re- 
tains evidence of woody structure. It is usually brown in 
color, but is much nearer true coal than peat is. 

Cannel. — Cannel coal contains a very large proportion of 
hydrogen in the form of hydrocarbons, therefore burning 
with a bright flame. It is usually dull black in color, and 



THE KITCHEN 43 

comes in compact, slablike pieces. It is found in not many 
places in this country and, hence, is expensive. What is 
found in the market under that name is a semi-bituminous 
coal. 

Bituminous. — Bituminous coal is found in eastern United 
States and, to a small extent, in the West, but the mines in 
that section produce what is known as non-bituminous coal. 
In appearance bituminous coal is compact, but inclined to 
break into irregular fragments with bright shining fracture. 
As the name implies, it is pitchy in character, but this does 
not become apparent till during the process of combustion, 
when it seemingly partially melts, and gas escapes from the 
mass until the remainder is almost pure carbon. For this 
reason it is sometimes called caking coal. In the manufac- 
ture of coal gas this caking portion is known as coke. 

Non-bituminous coal resembles bituminous coal in appear- 
ance, but lacks the property of forming a fused mass in 
burning, hence, cannot be used to produce coke. Both pro- 
duce much flame and smoke in burning, hence are objection- 
able on ground of cleanliness. 

Semi-bituminous coal lies in formation between bitumi- 
nous and anthracite, possessing some of the characteristics 
of both, burning with much less flame than bituminous, but 
more freely than anthracite. Being fairly free from hydro- 
carbons it is a cleanly fuel, and is often used for ranges and 
fireplaces. It stands next to anthracite in fuel value. 

Anthracite. — Anthracite coal is the most compact of all 
the coals, being almost free from hydrocarbons and, there- 
fore, burns with a slight, blue flame. Unless very expen- 
sive this coal is the most satisfactory and economical because 
of its greater heating power per ton, and because of its 
more uniform combustion. It is cleanly and easily used 
because of uniform size of the fragments. 

Coke, like charcoal, is one of the resulting products of 



44 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

distillation. It is coal heated without access of air, so that 
all the hydrocarbons may be driven off. For use in the arts 
coke is prepared by heating bituminous coal in special coke 
ovens. It is the equal of anthracite coal as a source of heat. 
Gas coke, the residue left on heating bituminous coal and 
cannel coal in the manufacture of coal gas, is largely used 
for household fuel. It is not equal to anthracite in fuel 
value. Because of its cleanliness, it is preferable to bitumi- 
nous coal, though it is thought by some to burn out grates 
and fire-boxes more rapidly than other fuels. 

Coal Gas is almost a pure hydrocarbon, and is prepared 
by distilling any coal rich in hydrogen. Under the subject 
of coke the coals most used were mentioned. Of all the 
gases used this is the most perfect in its results. 

Water Gas. — Though anthracite coal cannot be used in 
the making of coal gas, it is used in the manufacture 
of a gas which, because the hydrogen and oxygen it contains 
are derived from water, is known as water gas. Water, in 
the condition of superheated steam, and vaporized naphtha 
are passed over glowing anthracite. The carbon of the coal 
has a great attraction for the oxygen in the water, and in 
this heated condition they recombine to form equal volumes 
of carbon monoxid and free hydrogen. Water gas, even 
when enriched by naphtha, is not a good gas for either 
lighting or heating, being inferior to coal gas. The most 
serious objection to its use is on the ground of health, as the 
carbon monoxid is a deadly poison, " uniting with the 
haemoglobin of the blood to the exclusion of the oxygen. 
A small percentage of it has proved fatal." Coal gas suffo- 
cates by reducing the amount of oxygen in the room, but it 
is not a poison in the sense water gas is. 

Mineral oil, or crude petroleum, is a hydrocarbon, similar 
in composition to coal oil, which is a crude oil distilled from 
coal. Nevertheless, petroleum wells seem to have no direct 



THE KITCHEN 45 

connection with the coal in the earth. Whether it has 
passed upward through sand or shale strata during coal dis- 
tillation and, hence, is not in direct connection, has not been 
satisfactorily proved; but geologists generally agree that 
petroleum has been derived from vegetable remains which 
existed in past ages. The crude product has been known for 
centuries. The sacred fires of the Persians are burning oil 
springs. It was not till 1859 that it was discovered in 
large quantities in western Pennsylvania. 

Petroleum is obtained by boring in the same way artesian 
wells are sunk. The dark crude oil flows or is pumped 
from the earth and may be used, and is used to some 
extent in the arts as fuel, but for household use it is 
subjected to fractional distillation called refining. During 
refining, gases, liquids, and solids are obtained. 

Naphtha is the product which distils between the tempera- 
ture of 40°-70° F. 

Gasolene between 70°-90°. 

Benzine between 90°-150°. 

Kerosene between 150°-280°. 

Lubricating oils between 280°-400°. 

The residue contains vaseline, paraffin, and tarry matters. 
Of these gasoline and kerosene are used as household fuels. 

Gasolene is largely used as a source of gas in private 
houses not connected with a city system. When allowed 
to mix with air in its passage from a receptacle to the 
burner it forms what is called air gas, used in all forms 
of gasolene stoves. If the gasolene and air are mixed 
in specially constructed apparatus away from the dwelling, 
and then conducted in pipes to the place where it is to be 
used, a very good fuel may be obtained. Its lighting and 
fuel value are below that of coal or natural gas. 

Kerosene should never contain hydrocarbons which ignite 
at a temperature below 135° F. The better grades should 



46 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

not "flash" till warmed to 150° F. Some states require 
a flashing point of 200° F. It is a question whether the 
housekeeper should apply the standard test herself or trust 
to the dealer. Miss Parloa advises filling a cup one- 
quarter full of cold water, inserting a thermometer, and 
then adding boiling water till the temperature reaches 
110° F. At this point add two teaspoons oil and with 
a lighted taper try to ignite the oil. If it takes fire, it 
is not safe. 

Kerosene of a high standard is in the end more economi- 
cal even though more expensive, as it is more even and 
lasting in its combustion. 

Natural gas is a hydrocarbon similar but not equal in 
value to good coal gas. It is obtained by boring in the 
same way petroleum wells are bored. Though not as- 
sociated together in the earth, the general conclusion is that 
coal, petroleum, and natural gas must have a similar origin. 
In regions where it is found, natural gas is used for heat- 
ing, lighting, and cooking, proving a very ideal fuel. 

Acetylene gas is not a natural product, being made artifi- 
cially by action of water on calcium carbid, CaC 2 . It burns 
with an intense white light ; but at present its use as a fuel 
is problematical, as it has proved, under perhaps careless use, 
very explosive. Some authorities state that there is some 
acetylene gas formed in the inner cone of gas and candle 
flames, and that light is largely due to its presence. 

Alcohols. — Besides the wood alcohol which is produced 
by destructive distillation of wood, there is a second 
alcohol produced by fermentation. This alcoholic product 
of fermentation is called ethyl alcohol or spirits of wine. 
Both alcohols are very volatile and should be closely stop- 
pered. They burn with a faint blue flame, producing a fair 
amount of heat. They may be used in chafing-dish burners 
as well as in lamps. The objection to wood alcohol is that 



THE KITCHEN 47 

often there is an unpleasant odor connected with its use, 
and it is thought to be a poison, hence is used only as a 
fuel, never as a solvent in food or medicine as ethyl alcohol 
may be used. 

Alcohol may be burned through a wick or from an 
asbestos pad. The later method is wasteful, as if any 
alcohol is unused it cannot be saved. 

Method. — In oral language lessons and in reading give 
the children the history of such of these fuels as are used 
in their own homes. Secure from them and for them 
specimens for study and exhibition. Lay special emphasis 
on the comparative fuel value and cost of these materials, 
letting them deduce these facts from their own observations 
and experiments. 

The Range: Theory, History of its Evolution, and 

Practical AYork 

Kindling Point. — At ordinary temperatures very few 
substances unite readily with oxygen, but require a very 
high degree of heat before chemical union can take place. 
This degree varies with each substance and is known as its 
kindling point. 

Because of its extremely low kindling point, phosphorus 
is used in the manufacture of matches. The ordinary 
match is a splint of wood, one end of which is dipped 
in melted sulphur and then tipped with a paste of phos- 
phorus, potassium nitrate, or potassium chlorate and glue. 
Coloring matter may be added to the paste. If potassium 
chlorate is the oxidizing agent, the match snaps and burns 
vigorously when friction is applied. This union of the 
phosphorus with the oxygen, which is loosely held by 
the oxidizing agent, produces enough heat to ignite the 
sulphur. The heated sulphur unites with the oxygen of the 



48 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

air, forming sulphur dioxid, odor of burning sulphur match. 
The burning of the sulphur in turn ignites the wood. 

Safety matches do not contain phosphorus, but in place 
of it antimony sulphid is used. The ignition is produced by 
scratching upon a special surface coated with red phospho- 
rus and sand. 

The ignition of the match gives a fair illustration of the 
steps in the production of all flame from fuels; namely, 
a product rich in hydrogen and carbon, a fair amount 
of oxygen, and a temperature sufficiently high to cause 
separation of the hydrogen and carbon compounds into 
their elements, and a reunion with oxygen to form the 
simple compounds water and carbon dioxid. 

In historical and comparatively recent times the produc- 
tion of igneous combustion was a serious problem, as heat 
sufficient to ignite even the most finely divided fuel, as 
tinder, could be provided only by striking steel against flint 
or pyrite, or even rubbing two sticks together vigorously. 
Now the problem is much simplified, as the friction on 
the match causing it to ignite furnishes heat enough to 
ignite paper or finely divided wood or shavings. 

Gas, oil, or semisolids are largely composed of hydro- 
carbons, which when heated to their kindling point unite 
with the oxygen of the air forming water and carbon dioxid. 
If the supply of oxygen is not adequate, the elements form 
free hydrogen, marsh gas (CH 4 ), and carbon monoxid, be- 
sides, leaving some carbon in a glowing state. This glowing 
carbon is what gives the yellow color and furnishes light 
in the candle and in the carbon flame. The heat generated 
by the burning wick in the candle melts the fat (paraffin or 
stearin), and this liquid being drawn up through the fibres in 
the wick is slowly changed from liquid to gaseous state, and 
as the gases expand they pass to the outer portion of the 
flame, there mingling with the air and being heated to igni- 



THE KITCHEN 49 

tion point unite with the oxygen to form carbon clioxid and 
water. In the second cone the proportion of oxygen being 
small part of the carbon, though heated to the glowing stage, 
does not form a chemical union till it reaches the outer cone. 
The light is due to incandescent carbon particles. 

This change from liquid to gaseous state is true in the case 
of oil combustion, hence the wick in either lamp or oil stove 
should be loosely woven and fitted perfectly without crowd- 
ing or excess of air space in burner, otherwise air passing 
into the partly filled receptacle and mingling with the gas 
formed may ignite, causing an explosion. This explosion in 
miniature occurs when tjie tube of a Bunsen burner becomes 
heated and " catches back," that is, ignites at lower orifices. 
This occurs when gas is turned very low and there is not 
enough pressure to force the gas rapidly upward through 
the tube. 

Perfect Combustion. — The quantity of oxygen required to 
produce perfect combustion with most even production of 
heat theoretically has been demonstrated with carbon and 
with hydrogen separately. The results seem to show that 
excessive supplies of air are very wasteful of heat, for 
though the fuel is entirely consumed a large percentage of 
the heat liberated passes up the flue with the excessive 
draft. If not enough air passes into the burning fuel part 
of the carbon passes off as smoke, which is not only wasteful 
but actively detrimental, as the smoke collecting in the flues 
interferes with the circulation as well as prevents proper 
conduction of the heat. The quantity of air is regulated by 
openings in the apparatus, and a little experience and watch- 
fulness soon demonstrates the proper control of these open- 
ings. 

Evolution of Cooking Apparatus. — Probably primitive man, 
like his prototype to-day, cooked his food before or over the 
open fire or buried it in the hot ashes and glowing embers 



50 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

as is done by campers. Eeferences in Homer seem to 
indicate that even then the cooking of meats was before the 
open fire and not in a pot suspended over the coals. It is 
probable that coating fish or fowl with wet clay or mud, and 
then covering them with live coals, first suggested the possi- 
bility of making a permanent covering and resulted in the 
making of crude pottery as well as the crude ovens which 
were heated by being placed in the hot ashes and the top 
covered with live coals, much as the Dutch ovens were and 
are used now. 

The modern baking apparatus, however evolved, is ar- 
ranged for the use of coal, oil, or gas, seldom for the use of 
wood only. The modern range may be so constructed that 
by changing the parts in the fire-box any of the fuels may be 
employed. 

Electricity. — The latest form of apparatus is heated by 
means of the electric current. The objection to this appa- 
ratus is its excessive cost. As far as the heat for cooking is 
concerned, the cost of heat obtained directly from the coal 
is more than that derived from the electric current, for, 
though in transforming energy liberated by burning coal 
into electrical energy available for heating, only about 
four per cent is applied, practically all of that is 
utilized in the cooking apparatus. On the other hand, of 
the total amount of heat liberated in the coal range only 
one * per cent is utilized in cooking. Comparing the cost 
of the electric current used in lighting with gas used, when 
the cost for electricity is ten cents per thousand watt hours, 
it is about equivalent to gas at $1.25 per thousand feet. 
Considering that in the gas stove much heat liberated is 
not used, the obvious conclusion seems to be in favor of 
the use of electricity. If the apparatus is ever constructed 
so as to be sold at reasonable price, then electricity as a 
* " Heating and Lighting." — Carpenter. 



THE KITCHEN 51 

source of heat will stand first in the list for use in cookery. 
Under present conditions coal will be used for a long time to 
come. 

Range. — A good range should answer to the following : — 

(1) drafts as nearly perfect as possible ; 

(2) checks and dampers arranged so that the cook may 

control rate of combustion at will; 

(3) large oven space for size of range ; 

(4) evenness in temperature in all parts of the oven ; 

(5) arrangements for broiling ; 

(6) fire-box large enough to admit coal to depth of seven 

inches. 

(7) * Top part of stove all available for cooking at boiling 

temperature ; 

(8) double shaker, so that grate may be cleaned easily 

(duplex grate is good) ; 

(9) hot water back so arranged that a large supply of hot 

water is always available. 
Gas Range. — Gas range should occupy a small floor space, 
and yet the following be true : — 

(1) oven large ; 

(2) good place for broiling ; 

(3) room on top for heating several products at once ; 

(4) one or more small burners, so that gas may not escape 

by using a large burner with gas turned partly off, 
as otherwise must be done while simmering. 

(5) pipe connecting with chimney to remove products of 

combustion. 

Loss of Heat. — The loss in heating power available from 
a range is largely due to nature of heat itself, but in a 
measure is due to faulty construction, improper material, and 
lack of intelligent attention to obvious details on part of user. 

*Culinet Range. 



52 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

A review of the subject will aid in drawing important con- 
clusions. " Heat passes from a warmer body to a colder by- 
three general methods, — radiation, conduction, and convec- 
tion." 

Radiation. — Eadiant heat passes in waves directly in 
straight lines from the heated surface till absorbed by some 
body in its path. Air, except that containing large amount 
of water vapor, does not absorb it. Eadiant heat may be 
reflected from metallic surfaces, but is transmitted by cer- 
tain substances, as glass and liquids. Being received 
directly from the source, radiant heat is of a high tempera- 
ture. The amount of heat radiated from a body depends 
upon the nature of the surface only. Experiments have 
shown that when the surface is highly polished, varnished, 
or enamelled the radiation is lessened. 

Conduction. — When one end of a bar of metal is held in 
the flame, the heat travels slowly through the length of the 
bar, producing a rise in temperature. It differs from radiant 
heat in that its passage is gradual, and not affected by 
change of direction in substance heated. After a certain 
temperature is reached, the body begins to transmit heat. 
This method is called heat transmission by conduction. 
The amount of heat conducted depends on the material and 
on the diameter of the body. Metals conduct heat very 
easily, though they vary among themselves. 

Convection. — When the minute particles, or molecules, 
of which bodies are composed, in their vibration, come in 
contact with hot bodies, they will themselves become warm. 
It is in this way that gases and liquids are heated. Air in a 
room, or in a tightly closed space like an oven, is heated by 
coming in contact with heated surfaces, the currents in the 
air keeping the temperature more nearly equal. In heating 
water it is the circulation, depending upon the difference in 
temperature of various parts, which, by bringing every par- 



THE KITCHEN 53 

ticle in contact with the heated surface of the dish, causes 
the water to become hot. This method of heat transmission 
is called convection, or heating by contact. Most cooking is 
done by heat transmitted by convection. 

In any cooking apparatus, then, loss of heat occurs when 
the material presents a rough, unpolished surface, has many 
projecting portions (ornamentations ?), or is placed where 
currents of air may strike it. For economy of heat all cook- 
ing apparatus must be highly polished or enamelled, free 
from all but essential projections, and so placed while in 
use that no drafts may cross or strike it. In ovens, non- 
conducting material, as asbestos, may be used between sheets 
of iron or steel, further to prevent loss of heat. This is 
done in the Aladdin oven and in some steel ranges. 

Care of Range. — Every morning clean the ashes from the 
top of the oven, leaving a very thin layer to act as a non- 
conducting medium and so prevent excessive top heat in the 
oven. Close all drafts and shake the ashes out of the grate 
into the ash pan. If there is an ash sifter above the ash pan 
sift the ashes to save unburned coal, otherwise the ashes 
must be sifted later when they are removed. Carefully 
remove all ashes, as if left they absorb heat and are waste- 
ful. Eeturn ash pan to its place, save unburned coal for 
use on fire when w r ell burning. Brush any remaining ashes 
into ash box and remove clinkers. 

Laying Fire. — Crush paper and place in empty fire-box, 
lightly place on this finely split wood laid like lattice work, 
on this arrange a second layer of slightly larger kindling 
which should be of hard wood. Eeplace covers and light 
the paper from underneath. See that all dampers are open 
and checks closed. When the wood begins to burn, in about 
three minutes, add two shovelfuls coal so placed as to rest 
on the burning wood. When this ignites add coal to fill the 
box to within one or two inches of the covers — never above 



54 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

top of oven, otherwise there will not be air space to cause a 
draft. In few minutes, live usually, depending on strength 
of draft, close the smoke damper so as to send the heated 
air around the oven and up the chimney . Keep the lower 
draft open till the coal begins to look red in a few places, 
then close all drafts. This fire should need no further 
attention for several hours. When the coals are all reel, but 
not beginning to look white, add a fresh shovelful of coal 
so that the oven may not be cooled, but be kept at a steady, 
even heat. In an ordinary school kitchen range in constant 
use for five hours, two hods of coal should last three days. 

In case the oven is too warm, open the check in the pipe 
that connects the range with the chimney flue. If this is 
not effective, open the slide which is in the front of the 
range at edge of the fire-box, thus letting cold air enter and 
retard combustion by cooling the fuel. 

To revive a fire, shake the grate which cuts the ashes from 
the bottom of the fire, or in case this is absent remove the 
ashes at the bottom by using the poker ; never shake down 
a fire as this packs the coals, leaving too little air space for 
perfect combustion. Heating the top of the range to redness 
not only tends to warp the covers, but by producing heat 
sufficient for oxidation actually burns out the iron. 

To clean the Range. — After the fire is laid, but before it is 
lighted, wash the top of the range with warm soap-suds, 
wipe dry, and with a dauber apply a mixture of powdered 
graphite and soapy water (stove polishes have graphite as 
basis) to all parts not highly polished. Kub to dull finish 
w r ith the blacking brush, then light the fire, and as the iron 
becomes warm polish every part of the iron with a stove 
mitten. No blacking will rub off on the cooking utensils if 
the work has been well done. During the day keep the top 
of the range clean by rubbing w r ith soft paper. 

If any of the parts of the range are unfortunately of 



THE KITCHEN 55 

nickel, these should be polished when cold by covering with 
a whiting mixture, leaving till product is dry and then pol- 
ishing with a soft cloth. 

Brass trimmings are best cleaned with a mixture of 
rottenstone and oil, or the oil may be placed on the cloth 
and then dipped in the powder. This polish gives a soft 
yellow color which is very lasting. The brass polishes in 
the market have oil and rottenstone as a basis, but usually 
contain either an acid or an acid salt which acts on the 
surface of the metal. Their use should be followed by 
polishing with whiting. 

Method. — 1. Chemistry of matches including kindling 
point experiment. 

2. Flame, study and draw. 

3. History of cooking apparatus. 

4. Study of coal range. 

(1) Drafts, make drawing of range showing flues. 

(2) Cleaning the fire-box. 

(3) Placing the kindling. 

(4) Polishing the range. 

(5) Lighting the fire. 

(6) Keeping the fire constant. 

(7) Sifting of ashes and use of cinders. 

Home Work. — Study home range and prepare drawing of 

parts showing air spaces and drafts; essay on combustion 

and care of fire. 

SECTION II 

Cleanliness 

Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, Mrs. Richards and Miss Elliott ; 
Chemistry in Daily Life, Lassar and Colin ; Organic Chemistry and 
Inorganic Chemistry, Remsen ; Handbook of Household Science, 
Youmans ; Household Economics, Miss Parloa ; Home Sanitation, 
Mrs. Richards and Miss Talbot ; Women, Plumbers and Doctors, 
Plunkett ; Dust and its Dangers, Prudden ; Story of the Bacteria, 
Prudden ; Story of Germ Life, Conn. 



56 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Chemistry of Cleaning 

The metals in use in the kitchen include iron or cut steel, 
brass, copper, tin, zinc and aluminium, nickel and silver. 
Under the head of composition are found glass, porcelain, 
granite, and enamel ware. 

Iron. — If iron has not been exposed to dampness and is 
not rusty, washing with hot soap-suds or weak sal soda water 
and rubbing dry with a cloth is all that will be required. 
Iron sinks that are rusty may be cleaned by rubbing the 
inside with mutton fat, free from salt, and sprinkling with 
powdered quicklime. Leave over night and in the morning 
wash with plenty of water and a brush. Thoroughly rinse 
with sal soda solution and then with clear hot water. Bust 
may be removed by scouring with powdered emery cut with 
benzine. This must be used on a cold surface. 

Brass and Copper. — Brass or copper are readily acted 
upon by acids, hence they should not be used if any other 
method is possible. See care of range for details of methods. 

Tin is easily acted upon by acids, less easily by alkalies. 
In cleaning a discolored tin rub with baking soda moistened, 
or use a weak solution of sal soda, rinsing thoroughly in warm 
water and polishing with a dry soft towel. 

Zinc surfaces may be cleaned with whiting used as a 
polish. 

Aluminium, nickel, and silver all scratch easily and are 
therefore most satisfactorily cleaned by using whiting paste 
made as follows : Sift jeweller's whiting through a fine 
meshed cloth to remove any hard particles which might 
scratch the surface. Make the sifted whiting into a paste 
with soapy water, or water and alcohol, or water and am- 
monia. Apply the paste evenly to the clean surface of the 
metal. Let it dry and then polish with a very soft cloth. 
Silver should receive a last polishing with chamois. 



THE KITC HEIST 57 

Silver may be cleaned weekly by being allowed to stand 
in weak ammonia water for one-half hour, then rinsed and 
polished. Plated ware may be acted upon by strong alkali 
solutions. Silver should not be polished with whiting oftener 
than once a month. 

Glass. — Common window glass is easily acted upon by 
alkalies or acids, hence they should not be used in any but 
very weak solutions. Cover with a paste made of whiting. 
When it is dry, polish with soft paper. There are various 
cleaning preparations or soaps found in the market which 
act well used in the same way. 

Porcelain. — Kemove all debris and wash in clear soapy 
water; rinse in warm water, never in boiling; place in rack 
so they will not touch, and, when drained nearly dry, polish 
with soft cloth. 

Granite Ware. — Do not use a knife in cleaning either 
granite ware or blue enamel ware, but remove any food 
which will not soak off, by rubbing with iron dish-cloth and 
then scouring with sand soap. Wash in warm soap-sucls 
and rinse in clear hot water. Wipe dry on soft towel. 

Grease. — The solvents of grease which may be used in 
cleaning are kerosene, gasolene, benzine, naphtha, ether, and 
chloroform. Of these kerosene is used in cleaning utensils 
which may be oily. Add one tablespoon to the warm 
water and wash the dish, rinse twice, and then dry. When 
used on finished woodwork to remove greasy vapors, it 
must be rubbed dry each time. Alkalies, as ammonia, 
caustic soda, or caustic potash, form soaps or emulsions 
with fats, the alkali uniting with the fatty acid of the 
fat, setting the glycerine free. Sal soda, Na 2 C0 3 , is an 
alkaline salt which has a similar though less marked 
effect. It is used in all cases where the amount of fat 
is small. Heat aids the formation of a soap, hence these 
alkaline solutions should always be hot when used. All 



58 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

kitchen utensils should be put to soak as soon as used, 
so that when time comes to wash them, no food is dried on. 
Wash in hot soapy or soda water, rinse, and wipe dry. 
Never leave the dish stained or blackened, but wash as 
carefully as the china is washed. Begin with the tin 
utensils, then granite ware, and last iron ware. 

Care of the Sink. Disinfectants. — After the dishes are all 
washed with fresh soapy water, wash the sink in all its 
parts, leaving no corners in which dirt may collect. Never 
pour greasy water down the sink drain, but first change it 
into a soap or dissolve it. All dish water must be poured 
through a fine sieve to remove any coarse particles. 

Three times a week the sink drain should be flushed with a 
boiling sal soda solution, one pint sal soda dissolved in three 
gallons water. Use at least two quarts, following a flushing 
with very hot water, so that any grease which may have 
collected will be in a liquid condition, and so will be 
changed to a soap or emulsion more quickly. 

Lint from dish-cloths which are very much worn often 
clog a sink trap, and should not be used for that reason. 
In the lower portion of every trap there should be an 
opening closed by a screw cap, so that if drain through 
careless use becomes clogged, a pail may be placed under 
the trap, the cap removed, and the trap thoroughly washed 
and disinfected. The terms " disinfectant," "antiseptic," 
and "deodorant" are used so loosely that it may not be 
out of place to define them. 

"An antiseptic arrests putrefaction or fermentation, but 
does not kill the micro-organism, whilst a deodorant is used 
to destroy bad odors from cesspools, stables, and discharges, 
etc. ... By term 'disinfection' is meant the absolute 
destruction of infectious material." 



THE KITCHEN 



59 



Chemical. _, 
Pr 


itiseptic 
oportion. 


Disinfectant. 


Deodorant. 


Bichloride mercury . . 1 


: 40,000 


1 : 500, 1 : 1000 




Permanganate of potash, 1 


3,000 


Saturated solution 


1-3000 


Boric acid 1 


200 


— 


— 


Carbolic acid .... 1 


• 500 


1:20 


1- 50 


Sulphate copper ... 1 


400 


— 


1- 400 


Sulphate iron .... 1 


200 


— 


1- 400 


Chloride of lime . . . 


— 


25 % chlorine 


f 1 lb. to 
1 8 qts. 1I 2 


Chloride of zinc . . . 


— 


1:5 


1- 20 


Milk of lime .... 


— 


Used as whitewash 


— 



Boiling water is an antiseptic if temperature is main- 
tained ten minutes. 

Boiling hot soap-suds is another excellent antiseptic. 

To be of value, a disinfectant must touch all parts of- the 
object thought to be infected, so that no germ life may 
escape. 

All woodwork and walls where dust may collect and 
germs develop should be washed in an antiseptic solution 
and then in clear water and wiped dry. 

Sunshine is detrimental to growth of germ life, and hence 
is a fair antiseptic, but for hygienic cleanliness its work 
should be supplemented by use of antiseptic washes. All 
antiseptic or disinfectant solutions should be carefully la- 
belled %)oison and placed in a locked closet to prevent acci- 
dental poisoning. 

Method. — Outline. 

Materials. — Mouldy food, test-tubes, flour, sugar, alkalies, 
beef fat or olive oil, whiting, rotten stone, emery, benzine, 
kerosene. 



60 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

A. Meaning of Cleanliness. 

Includes : — 

I. Removing dust. 

II. Preventing growth of germ life. 

III. Removing stains. 

B. How Accomplished. 

(a) Floating products in air allowed to settle and 
then removed by wiping surface with cloth 
dampened in water, soapy water, or mercuric 
chloride, water solution 1 : 40,000. 
Wash cloth, using hot soap-suds, and rinse in 
boiling water. Dry in sunshine. 

I. Prevent Entrance of Dust. 

Illustrate action of invisible life by showing mouldy 
bread or mouldy cheese. 

(a) To one tablespoon flour and one teaspoon sugar 

add three tablespoons boiling water and cover 
the dish with a tightly fitting cover or one 
that projects over the edges. 

(b) In another dish left open place the same mixture. 

Leave both for several hours and examine. 
Explain the cause. Apply explanation to pro- 
duction of foul odors. 

II. Preventing Growth of Germ Life. 

Experiment 1. Action of Boiling Temperature. 
Prepare a weak cane sugar solution, divide it, 
placing li teaspoonfuls in each of three test-tubes. 

(a) Boil solution and seal with cotton while hot. 

(b) Boil solution and leave exposed to air. 

(c) Seal solution 3 without first boiling. 

Leave the test-tubes (a) and (b) in dark place. 
Expose test-tube (c) to the direct sunshine. 
Examine for presence of moulds or bacterial 
life. 



1. Solvents, { 



THE KITCHEN 61 

Experiment 2. Dampen flour and leave in dark 
place for several days. 

Let pupils draw conclusions as to the factors 
which aid growth of moulds and bacteria and how 
these conditions may be avoided. 
III. Removing Stains. 

(a) Grease stains. 

Kerosene, 
Gasolene, 
Benzine, 
Naphtha, 
Chloroform. 

2. Soaps or emulsions. 

Explain nature of fats or oils and how 
alkalies may break up the combina- 
tion, forming a new compound called 
a soap. 
Experiment 3. Pour 1-j- teaspoonf uls strong sodium 
hydroxid solution (jSTaOH) into an evaporating 
dish or a granite ware dish and add 3 c.c. warm 
tallow, fat, or olive oil. Boil the mixture, stirring 
till it becomes clear. Add tiny amount of salt (soap 
is not soluble in salt water). Soap should collect 
on top of the liquid. Use it in making soap-suds. 
Experiment 4. Prepare a greasy water ; add solution 
of sal soda (TSra 2 C0 3 ), or use ammonia or potassium 
carbonate to form an emulsion. [Wood ashes con- 
tain either potassium or sodium salts, depending 
upon the location of the vegetable growth. Inland 
woods are rich in potassium salts. Hence the use 
of wood ashes in removing grease stains.] 

(b) Stains on metals. 
(1) Why metals become discolored. 

Copper or brass oxidized by union with 
oxygen of air. 



62 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Iron rust (oxid produced by oxygen in 
presence of moisture). 

Silver — sulphid formed by action of 
sulphur in food or in air from burn- 
ing gas. 

Aluminium tarnished by acids in foods. 

(2) Objection to use of acids. 

(3) Polishing reagents. 

Whiting or silver polish. 
Experiment 5. Sift one pound jewellers' whiting 
through fine-meshed cloth to remove the coarse 
particles. Make the powder into a paste, using 
soap solution or ammonia in water. Use this on 
silver, nickel, aluminium, and zinc. 
Eottenstone and sweet oil to be used on copper or 

brass. 
Benzine and powdered emery to be used on cut steel. 
IV. Care of Sink. 

Materials used in body of sink. 
Plumbing — Form of trap and its value. 
Use of strainer. 
-Disinfection of trap. 

Flushing with boiling water, 

or soapy water at boiling temperature, 
or hot sal soda solution, 
or a disinfectant. 
Practice work for pupils. 

Clean all woodwork, windows, metal, and dishes 

in the kitchen. 
Disinfect the sink drain and dish-cloth. 
To Teacher. — Prepare Experiments 2, 3, and 4 in class, 
but have duplicates prepared several days before, so 
that results may be shown and conclusions drawn. 
Encourage pupils to examine and report orally and with 



THE KITCHEN 63 

drawings on kinds of traps found in their own 
homes. 
Tell them of the work of Pasteur. 
Have the results of work embodied in written exercise 

on cleanliness. 



CHAPTER III 

STARCHY FOODS, AND HOW TO COOK THEM 

Starch. — All plants contain more or less of a class of 
compounds called carbohydrates. These contain carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen. The parts of carbon are usually six, 
or a multiple of six, and the hydrogen and oxygen are in the 
ratio to form water ; that is two parts of hydrogen to one of 
oxygen. A few carbohydrates are of animal origin, but the 
larger number form the bulk of the solids of plants. 

One member of the group cellulose has been mentioned 
in discussing woods as fuel. As it forms the main part 
of the cell wall of all higher plants, and as a rule of the 
lower plants, which include fungi and bacteria, it is a factor 
to be considered in all study of vegetable foods. It is 
insoluble in water though softened by long application of 
boiling temperature. 

The digestive juices of man have little or no action on cellu- 
lose. In presence of water and under the influence of 
bacteria it decomposes, giving rise to marsh gas. This 
bacterial decomposition may take place in the intestine. It 
is said to increase the peristaltic action of the intestine and 
by hastening the elimination of food cause a loss of nitrogen. 
This was shown by experimental feeding with whole- wheat 
bread. The results were that less of the nitrogenous 
products were absorbed on this diet than were during use 
of white bread. 

Starch. — Contained within the cellulose walls of plants are 
tiny granules of a highly complex carbohydrate, starch. The 

04 



STARCHY FOODS 65 

characteristic appearance of starch granules may be shown 
by placing a very thin slice of potato under a low-power 
microscope. These granules vary in size even from the 
same plant, but they may be recognized by peculiar mark- 
ings upon the surface as well as by shape. The starch 
seems to be deposited in layers around one or more nuclei, 
— hence concentric rings may be observed. When subjected 
to water and low heat, these layers absorb the water, and 
thus the markings disappear. If the boiling temperature 
be used, the starch granule loses its regular form, becoming 
a paste which is slightly sweet and very gummy. Cold 
water does not form a solution with starch. 

When starch is heated with dilute acids, it forms a clear 
solution. Water seems to have united with it. The last 
product of this reaction is grape sugar. A ferment in the 
saliva changes starch into a sugar. A similar change takes 
place in the starch of seeds on germination. This may be 
shown by chewing in succession barley and the germinated 
barley known as malt. The first will be tasteless, whereas 
the germinated barley is sweet with sugar. 

Dextrin. — Dry starch may be heated .and thus changed 
into a product which is yellowish in color and soluble in 
water ; this is called dextrin. It is the basis of British 
gum and of library paste. Long-continued heat causes the 
dextrin to become brown and bitter. This product is called 
caramel. 

Beyond this stage the product is soon transformed 
into carbon. Water is driven out, thus leaving carbon 
free. 

Iodine Reaction. — Starch paste gives a blue color with 
iodine solution, so that its presence even in minute 
quantities may be detected. This is used in connection 
with the microscope to detect adulteration of spices with 
foreign starches. The test may be easily applied to so- 



66 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

called baby foods, where starch should not be present, as 
the very young baby cannot digest starchy foods. 

The simplest way to determine the amount of starch in a 
food is to reduce it to powder in a mortar, and mix with 
water to form a medium dough. Tie the dough in a loosely 
woven cloth, so that no part except starch may escape. 
Place the bag of dough in a bowl of cool water and knead 
with the fingers till no more starch can be washed from it. 
This is shown when the water runs clear, not milky, from 
the bag. Let the starchy water stand till all starch has 
settled, drain or siphon off the water. Dry the starch in 
the sun and weigh. If the weight of food is known, the 
ratio will show roughly the amount of starch in the food. 
The residue in the bag will be cellulose and insoluble 
proteins. If it be flour which is examined, the product is 
largely gluten, and may be examined at this time. 

Digestion of Starch. — During the mastication of food any 
starches are mingled with the saliva, which, if. its re- 
action is alkaline, begins the transformation of starch into 
a sugar. The partially transformed starch on reaching the 
stomach meets an acid secretion which in the course of half 
an hour usually neutralizes the alkaline saliva. The 
stomach ferments have no action upon starch, hence it 
passes without further change into the small intestine. 
Here the change into soluble sugars is completed by other 
ferments secreted by the pancreas and by the intestine. 

Use of Starch. — Starch, when digested, is utilized in the 
body in furnishing energy expended as body heat, as work, 
or stored as fat. It never builds any other tissue in the 
body, hence must always be used with muscle-producing 
foods, the proteins. 

Method. — Starch. 

Composition and Form. — Use a microscope to show 
individual granules as well as position in cell. (Cut a 



STARCHY FOODS 67 

very thin slice of raw potato to illustrate cells containing 
starch.) 

Experiment 1. Composition, — Place dry starch in test- 
tube and apply heat from Bunsen burner. Note the change 
in color, the odor, the moisture on sides of tube, and near 
end of experiment apply lighted match to mouth of test- 
tube to ignite the combustible gases driven off. Break tube 
and examine its contents. 

If nitrogen were present, the odor would have been like 
burnt feathers. 

Experiment 2. Action of Cold Water on Starch. — To ^ tea- 
spoon corn starch add 2\ teaspoonf uls cold water. Mix thor- 
oughly. Allow it to stand till starch settles. When water 
is clear, drain it off and dry the starch. Draw conclusions. 

Experiment 3. Action of Boiling Water on Starch. — To 
2\ teaspoonfuls boiling water in test-tube add \ teaspoon 
dry starch, without stirring. Examine the lumps and ex- 
plain the condition. 

Experiment 4. Action of Heat on Cold Water Mixture. — 
To \ teaspoon corn starch add 2\ teasponfuls cold water. 
Mix thoroughly, and continue to stir while heat is applied. 
Use a thermometer to note the temperature when mixture 
becomes thick, when clear. What has become of starch 
granules. Dilute with water. Draw conclusions. 

Experiment 5. Action of Cold Water on Vegetables soaked 
in them. — Wash and pare a potato, slice it, and let slices soak 
in cold water for one-half hour. Examine the water. Drain 
and apply heat to the white sediment in dish. It thickens. 
Why? 

Experiment 6. Put rice in boiling water. Note the 
milky color of fluid. Let this product stand and examine 
sediment. Apply heat as in Experiment 5. Are the results 
similar ? (Dry the rice for future work.) 

Should starchy vegetables be soaked in cold water? 



68 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Boiling Vegetables. 

Experiment 7. Wash and pare thinly two crisp potatoes. 
Place them in boiling salted water. (1 tablespoon salt to 
1 quart water.) Continue to boil the water till the potatoes 
are soft. Remove one from the water and keep in warm 
place, uncovered. Cook the second potato longer or till 
gummy. Compare the dry, mealy condition of the first 
with the gummy, slightly sweet condition of the second. 

Give list of Starchy Foods. 

Experiment 8. Home Work for Pupil. — Pare a large 
potato, and grate it into a bowl of cold water. Drain off 
milky water and add fresh. Save the milky water. Eepeat 
this process till starch is all washed from the fibre. 

Let the water stand. Drain and dry the starch. Dry 
the fibre or cellulose left after washing out the starch. 
Bring the results to the class. 

If the period for work will not permit every experiment, 
omit those on rice. If a microscope is not available, place 
drawings on board, and have pupils hold thin slices of 
potato to the light to see structure. 

The boiled potato may be put through vegetable press, 
thus making riced potatoes. The potatoes used in Experi- 
ment 5 may be used in preparing escalloped potatoes. 

Caution! — Avoid the use of terms like "starch cell," 
or "bursting of wall of starch grain," or "starch is made 
soluble," or "dissolves," because they do not express the 
truth, though commonly used. 

Recipes for Pupils 

Riced Potatoes. — Select medium sized potatoes, pare, and 
cut into uniform shape, and cover with cold water till ready 
for use. Never soak in cold water, as there will be a loss of 
mineral salts and starch. As soon as possible immerse in 



STARCHY FOODS 69 

boiling salted water — two quarts water, one tablespoonf ul 
salt. Continue to boil the water till potatoes are tender; 
that is, easily pierced by a fork. Drain and leave uncovered 
while preparing the dish in which the potato is to be served. 
When the dish has been dipped in hot water and dried, force 
the hot potato through a vegetable press, or rub through a 
colander or coarse sieve, using a wooden spoon, thus piling 
the product lightly upon the dish. Never touch the prod- 
uct after having passed it through the press. 

Escalloped Potatoes. — Scrub, pare, and cut five small pota- 
toes in one-eighth inch slices. Soak one-half hour in hot 
water to remove some of the acrid flavor. Drain and put 
into a deep pudding dish in layers, alternating with salt, 
pepper, butter, and a thin layer of sifted flour. Add warm 
milk so that it is visible in top layer. Bake in slow oven 
one and a half hours, or till potatoes are soft. Serve in the 
dish in which it is cooked. 

Transformation of Starch into Soluble Compounds 

History of Sauces. — Various liquid or semi-liquid products, 
which by adding flavor, moisture, or by increasing attrac- 
tiveness of solid foods render them more palatable, and 
therefore more digestible, are known as sauces. The early 
Eomans used a sauce which they termed jus, but it may 
have been the meat juice, or gravy, rather than a product re- 
sembling our modern sauces. It is surmised that our modern 
sauce is an evolution of a solution used by the Eomans in 
preserving or maturing meats. Pliny writes of salsugo or 
salsilago, a briny pickle in which meat was kept. Thudi- 
chum thinks that this standard jus became a salsum or salsa, 
which the French changed into saulza, and finally into sauce. 

Beginning as meat juice or meat pickle, these additions 
became more and more complicated, but retained as a basis 



70 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

the juice or juice diluted with hot water — bouillon, or meat 
broth. Each nationality has its favorite sauces, but it is to 
France that we owe the greatest debt, as they held fast 
to the old traditions, and so improved and increased the 
number of sauces that long before America was discovered 
the sauciers of Paris had formed a corporation. Before the 
reign of Louis XI. (1423-1483) they made sauces which the 
people used to flavor their ragouts. By a patent of Louis 
XII. this making of sauces was raised in 1514 to the rank 
of a distinct trade or profession. The era of fine cookery 
in France began during the reign of Louis XIV., in seven- 
teenth century, when the nobles vied with each other in 
compounding delicate dishes. From this time on, even into 
and beyond the French Revolution, the art of cookery 
nourished to such an extent that writers and artists and 
statesmen were more proud of being the inventor of a new 
sauce or a new dish than of their professional skill in other 
lines — Alexander Dumas is a famous example ; while many 
of our well-known sauces still retain the name of the states- 
man or noble who created them — for example, sauce a la 
Bechamel. After the Revolution, the cooks of the nobles, 
being obliged to provide for themselves, established restau- 
rants where the most delicate and elaborate products of their 
skill were at the service of the one who could pay the price. 
The world has adopted the restaurant system, and French 
cookery is the standard of excellence. The names of these 
famous cooks are preserved in literature as well as in our re- 
cipes. Sauce Robert is said to be named from its inventor, 
a cook, and to have given the title to a satirical pamphlet 
by the French historian Thiers. This pamphlet, like the 
sauce, was not only acid, but very biting, and got its author 
into difficulty. 

The modern sauce is composed of meat essences, vegetable 
flavors, spices and condiments, held together Iry a bind- 



STARCHY FOODS 71 

ing material made by heating flour to a very high tempera- 
ture so as to change it into a gluelike product. This change 
is best secured by heating the dry flour and fat together till 
they become thin, and in some cases brown, when the liquid 
is slowly added, and all cooked till the product is smooth 
and velvety. It may then be strained and kept in a cool 
place till needed, or kept hot in a double boiler till ready 
for use. Most sauces have as a foundation brown sauce or 
Eoux, or white sauce or veloute, both easily made if ma- 
terials are perfect and care is used in compounding. 

Materials. — Flour, butter, potatoes, turnips, carrots, pars- 
nips, salsify, and asparagus. 

Outline. — I. Review of previous lesson. 

Cook in boiling salted water the following vegetables : 
potatoes, turnips, carrots, parsnips, salsify, and asparagus. 

II. Action of dry heat on starch. 

Experiment 9. Place one tablespoon dry starch or flour 
on a piece of paper (cellulose) and leave them in a hot oven 
(300° F.) for fifteen minutes or such a length of time as is 
necessary to change the color of starch to a light yellow. 
Note taste and odor. To one-third the product add three 
teaspoons water and boil. Filter to remove unchanged 
starch. The solution contains dextrin used as a glue. Add 
twice its bulk of alcohol, and dextrin is precipitated ; filter 
and dry. Test starch paste with tincture of iodine. Test 
dextrin with tincture of iodine. 

III. Starch or flour cooked in hot butter or other fat, as 
beef or olive oil. 

Experiment 10. To one teaspoon very hot but not browned 
butter add two teaspoons flour ; continue to heat and stir 
till the flour is thoroughly mixed with the butter, and the 
mixture has become thin but not brown. (Remove a drop 
to a white piece of paper and save to test with iodine.) 
Then slowly add one tablespoon milk or stock, stirring over 



72 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

the fire till the mixture is thick and smooth, then add a 
second tablespoon liquid; continue till four and one-half 
tablespoons liquid have been added. Heat the product to 
boiling point and season with one-sixteenth teaspoon salt 
and a few grains white pepper. 

The high temperature conveyed by the fat quickly changes 
the flour into dextrin, which, being soluble, may be diluted 
with liquid and yet remain smooth and paste-like. 

If the flour or the fat be browned in this process, the 
product contains not only dextrin, but a product of dextrin, 
dextrin-caramel, which gives the brown color and slightly 
bitter taste to brown sauces. 

IV. What other method of cooking gives the brown 
exterior to starchy foods ? 

Explain the use and value of sauces and give something 
of their history. 

Have each pupil prepare white sauce, serving it with one 
vegetable. Other vegetables if in season may be substituted 
for any in the list, or the number may be restricted to three. 

Roux, or Brown Sauce. — 1 cup hot soup stock, \ teaspoon 
salt, \ saltspoon pepper, 1 teaspoon lemon juice, 1 teaspoon 
chopped onion, 1 tablespoon butter, 1 tablespoon flour. 

The stock may be made from bones from roasts or steak 
with addition of fresh meat from shin. Cut and break all 
and cover with cold water. Keep at simmering point three 
hours. Strain and season with salt and keep in ice chest in, 
closed dish. 

Melt the butter and add the onion. Fry till a light 
brown, add the flour, and cook till the mixture slightly 
thins, then add the hot stock two tablespoons at a time, 
stirring each time till smooth, season with lemon, pepper 
and salt, and strain. This is foundation for many sauces. 



STARCHY FOODS 73 

WHITE SAUCE (i RECIPE) 

To one teaspoon very hot but not browned butter add 
two level teaspoons cornstarch, or two and one-half level 
teaspoons flour; stir over the heat till the products are 
thoroughly mixed and have become slightly thinner. Then 
slowly add one tablespoon warm milk, stirring it over the 
fire till mixture is thick and smooth, then add a second 
tablespoon milk, continue till four and one-half tablespoons 
milk have been added. Heat product to the boiling point 
and remove from the fire. Season with one-sixteenth tea- 
spoonful salt and a few grains of pepper. 

Macaroni 

Facts. — Macaroni, as we know it, seems to be original to 
southern Italy though a similar paste is used in Persia, 
India, and China, not tubular, however. 

The name " macaroni " seems to have come from a Greek 
word meaning happiness, and hence some authorities imply 
that it is an invention of the early Greek settlers in Sicily 
and Calabria. Macaroni may have been introduced into 
France at the time of the wedding of Catherine de ? Medici 
with Henry II. in sixteenth century. 

Macaroni is made of a flour prepared from a wheat grain 
rich in gluten. This wheat flour is made into a dough with 
boiling water. The dough is worked under heavy revolving 
stones till of the right consistency. Upon this process 
depends much of the quality of the product. This dough is 
then forced by a powerful plugger through a perforated steel 
or iron cylinder. As this cylinder is suspended over a fire, 
the dough is partially baked as it is forced into shape. It 
is afterwards hung over rods or laid on cloth-covered frames 
to dry. In Italy, especially in Naples, during this drying 
it is exposed to dust and odors of every kind. 



74 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

If the cylinders are large, the product is macaroni ; if 
finer, it is spaghetti ; if very fine, vermicelli. When the 
paste is cut into fancy shapes, it is called pasta cV Italia. 

French macaroni is made from a flour enriched with 
gluten and is considered as good or even better than Italian 
macaroni, but that made in the United States is poor in 
gluten, starchy, and breaks easily when cooking, presenting 
an unattractive appearance. 

Good macaroni is rough, elastic, and hard. In color it is 
yellowish gray, never starchy. 

When cooked in boiling salted water, it increases at least 
twice in bulk and does not split. 

Food Value. — Macaroni is comparatively rich in nitroge- 
nous food and rich in heat-producers, hence is a valuable 
and nutritious food. It should be served as a vegetable or 
with cheese as the principal muscle-producing food at the 
meal, not as an accompaniment to a meat dish. 

Alone, macaroni does not contain the amount of muscle 
food necessary for the laboring-man, hence its use with 
eggs, meat, or cheese is essential. 

Method. — Material. Samples of the various forms in 
which macaroni or Italian paste is found in our markets, 
cheese, tomato (can), butter, and flour. Pictures showing 
native manufacture. 

Outline : — (1) History. (3) Manufacture. 

(2) Composition. (4) Food Value. 

Experiment 11. Composition of Flour. — Mix two table- 
spoons flour with two teaspoons water to form a stiff dough. 
Knead till smooth. Securely tie in a square of coarse 
muslin and knead in a bowl containing one quart luke- 
warm water, till the white material ceases to pass out. 
Save the water. When white material has settled, drain off 
the clear water, save the residue, and test for starch. 



STARCHY FOODS 75 

Examine the product. Note its color and elasticity. It 
is a compound in flour which by swelling retains the gases 
in bread-making, or causes the increase in bulk in macaroni 
during cooking. Eorm part of it into a smooth ball and 
cook it in boiling water. 

Cooking Macaroni. — Cook in boiling salted water twenty 
minutes. Drain and pour over cold water to remove any 
starch paste on the outer part, which if left would cause 
the pieces of macaroni to adhere to each other. 

Eeview of previous lesson. Prepare white sauce. Pre- 
pare tomato sauce. 

Serve macaroni with (a) white sauce, as 

(b) Baked macaroni with cheese. 

(c) With tomato sauce. 

While the macaroni is cooking, each pupil may prepare a 

white or a tomato sauce as review and serve with the cooked 

macaroni as directed. Essay on macaroni may constitute 

the home work. 

Recipe for Pupils 

Tomato Sauce. — 1 cup hot stewed and strained tomato, 
\ teaspoon salt, \ saltspoon paprika or white pepper, 1 tea- 
spoon chopped onion, 1 tablespoon butter, 1 tablespoon flour. 

Prepare the same as for Roux or brown sauce. 

Serve with macaroni. 

Eor white sauce, see p. 73. 

Additional Work in Sauces 

(a) Koux or brown butter sauce is the basis of brown 
sauce piquante, sauce Robert, and brown mushroom sauce. 
(6) "White Eoux" — a misnomer; white sauce, see p. 39. 
Drawn butter sauce, foundation of — 

Caper, Shrimp, Sauce Piquante, 

Egg, Oyster, Bechamel, 

Lemon, Parsley, Curry sauce. 



76 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Practice. — Steamed rice with, curry sauce ; cauliflower 
with white sauce; cabbage au gratin, white sauce, and 
grated cheese. 

Facts to be noted : — 

(1) Sauces must be smooth and free from oil. 

(2) Cabbage and cauliflower are cooked when cellulose is 
tender, usually in twenty minutes. They become tough 
and strong flavored if cooked longer. 

(3) If dried bread be tied loosely in cheese cloth and 
placed on top of vegetables, as cauliflower, cabbage, or onion, 
it will in a measure absorb the odors which otherwise 
escape into the room. 

Recipe for Pupils 

Cabbage au Gratin. — Select a small heavy cabbage. 
Remove the outside discolored leaves and cut the remainder 
into quarters. Soak it in salted water half an hour. 
Drain, place in boiling salted water, and cook rapidly 
twenty minutes. Placing stale bread loosely tied in cheese 
cloth on top of cabbage under a cover will in a measure 
absorb the odor, so that it will not be objectionable in the 
room. 

At the end of twenty minutes the cabbage should be 
tender, but still greenish yellow, never brownish yellow. 
While the cabbage is cooking, prepare a white sauce and 
grate two ounces of cheese. Drain the water from the 
cooked cabbage, place quickly in covered vegetable dish, 
pour over it the hot white sauce, sprinkle over the grated 
cheese, replace the cover, and serve. The heat from the 
cabbage and the sauce partially melts the cheese. 

Eice 

Facts. — Eice as it is found in nature is a kernel covered 
with two husks, a coarse outer one, which is easily removed, 



STARCHY FOODS 77 

and an inner reddish one, sometimes seen on rice in market. 
Paddy is the name given to grain in its husks. In writings 
the expression " paddy " fields is used to mean rice fields. 

The outer husk is removed during the threshing, but the 
close inner husk must be removed by careful milling. Dur- 
ing this process the rice is ground between stones, then 
pounded in mortars, and finally winnowed by fanning and 
screening till all the inner husk is removed. 

The rice is then sifted into grades, whole, middlings, and 
small whole grains. 

The middlings contain the broken fragments. This is 
sometimes ground into rice flour. 

Food Value. — Eice is deficient in protein or muscle food, 

fat, and mineral matter, being essentially a heat-producing 

food. It should be eaten with meat, cheese, peas, lentils or 

beans, as well as with butter or bacon. It cannot take the 

place of potatoes unless much fresh fruit is used, as it is so 

poor in mineral salts that its exclusive use tends to favor 

scurvy. 

i 
Method. — Material. Eice, cheese, fruit, milk, pictures 

of rice fields, slides showing form of granules, and showing 

its use in adulteration of spices and condiments. 

Outline. 

f Food of one-third of the population of the 

History-; world; mentioned several hundred years b.c. 

t Used by Greeks and Eomans. 

Name, — Oryza sativa ; Family, — The 
Grasses ; Climate, — Tropical ; Part used as 
j food, — Grain ; Preparation for market, — 
I Milling; Composition. 

Compare with other grains. See table in chapter on 
Foods, p. 118. 

Uses. — Vegetable, cakes, puddings. 



Botany 



78 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Practice. — Necessity of washing rice before cooking. 
Boiled rice and cheese, steamed rice, — using water or milk, 
value of. 

Browned Rice. — Brown rice in oven as you would coffee 
berry. When golden brown, steam. Effect is similar to 
what preceding experiment ? 

The steamed rice may be served as a vegetable or with 
fruit and cream as pudding. 

Emphasize the necessity of having each rice grain whole 
and dry ; and that rice contains very little muscle food, and 
therefore must be served with protein foods. 

Essay on rice as a food may be the home work. 

If possible have rice growing in a pot for pupils to see. 

BOILED RICE WITH CHEESE (i RECIPE) 

Wash one tablespoonful rice by rubbing under water, so 
as to remove all dirt, and any rice starch from broken 
grains. Drain and place it in two cups boiling water con- 
taining one-half teaspoonful salt. Boil the water vigorously 
till the rice is tender, fifteen or twenty minutes. Lift the 
rice from the bottom of the dish, using a fork ; never stir 
it while cooking, as the grains must be individual. When 
rice is tender, drain and wash with hot water, pouring it 
over the rice in the sieve. Beturn rice to the dish and 
leave it uncovered in doorway of oven or on the back of the 
stove, till partly dry. Lift in with a fork one level table- 
spoonful grated cheese. Pile lightly in a dish and serve as 
a vegetable or substitute for meat dish. 

STEAMED RICE (i- RECIPE) 

Wash one tablespoonful rice. Pour over it three table- 
spoonfuls hot water and cook in double boiler till tender, — 
about forty-five minutes. (A cup placed in small stew pan 



STARCHY FOODS 79 

may be used in place of double boiler.) Eemove cover from 
the rice and let excess of water evaporate. 

This method retains all nitrogenous products and all 
mineral salts, hence it is the better way. 

RICE PUDDING (^ RECIPE) 

Soak one tablespoon rice one-half hour in eight table- 
spoons milk ; add one teaspoon sugar. Cook in improvised 
double boiler three hours. Transfer to tiny pudding dish 
and brown in oven. Serve hot or cold. 

CURRY OF RICE (^ RECIPE) 

Wash one tablespoon rice; pour over it three tablespoons 
stock or milk seasoned w T ith ± teaspoon sifted curry powder, 
and boil in double boiler forty-five minutes. 

Starch as Thickening Agent 

Method. — Materials. Corn starch, potato, baker's choco- 
late, sugar, milk, eggs. 

Outline. — Review the work given on pp. 38-39. 

Starch. — Cold water has no effect. Hot water hardens 
in lumps. 

(1) Hot water on cold water mixture makes smooth 
paste. 

(2) Boiling water on sugar and flour mixture makes a 
smooth product. 

(3) Flour and very hot fat form a soluble product, 
dextrin, which is soluble in liquids, forming a smooth 
gelatin-like product. 

Use of Methods in Cookery 

Method No. 1. — Thickening soups, gravies, sauces. 
Method No. 2. — Puddings, cream pies, pudding sauces. 



80 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Method No. 8. — Meat sauces, vegetable sauces, soup 
thickening. 

Practice. — Potato soup, chocolate cream pudding, va- 
nilla sauce, corn starch pudding, chocolate sauce, tapioca 
pudding. 

Emphasize the necessity of thorough cooking to prevent 
the " raw starch " taste. The recipes used may be any, so 
that they illustrate the principles. 

Essay to be on starchy foods. 

Recipes for Pupils 

POTATO SOUP (\ RECIPE) 

1 small potato ; f cup milk ; \ inch cube onion ; | tea- 
spoon salt; -i- teaspoon celery salt; \ teaspoon white pep- 
per ; 1 teaspoon butter ; ^ teaspoon flour. 

Prepare the potato as in recipe for riced potato. Heat 
the onion with the milk in double boiler. Add flour to the 
melted butter, and when flour and butter are thoroughly 
united, slowly add the milk, one tablespoonful at a time, 
till four have been added. Then add the seasoning and the 
remainder of the milk. Return the product to the double 
boiler, and add the mashed or riced potato. Heat 
thoroughly and serve in hot dish. 

CHOCOLATE CREAM PUDDING 

1 cup milk; 4 tablespoons sugar; 2 tablespoons corn 
starch; 1 ounce chocolate; ± teaspoon vanilla; 1 egg — 
white. 

Melt the chocolate in the double boiler, slowly add the 
milk, and heat to 70° C. (Wrinkles appear on surface of 
milk.) Mix the corn starch thoroughly with the sugar; 
add to it the hot milk. Return both to the double boiler 
and cook till smooth and thick, stirring it all the time. 
Remove from fire. Beat the white of the egg till stiff, but 



STARCHY FOODS 81 

not flaky, and fold it into the partly cooled pudding. 
Flavor it with vanilla and place it in wet pudding mould. 
Stand on ice for three hours. Serve with vanilla sauce. 

VANILLA SAUCE 

i cup boiling water; 4 tablespoons sugar; 2 level tea- 
spoons corn starch; 1 teaspoon butter; 1 yolk egg] ± 
teaspoon vanilla. 

Mix sugar and corn starch ; add the boiling water slowly ; 
boil five minutes; add the butter. Beat the yolk of egg 
till thick. Slowly add to it the cooked mixture. If heat 
has not cooked the yolk return the product to double boiler 
and stir and cook till the mixture is smooth and velvety. 
Immediately pour into sauce dish, and add flavoring when 
cool. Serve with or around the pudding. 

Tapioca, Arrowroot, Sago 

Method. — Material. Tapioca, sago, arrowroot, milk, 
eggs, fruit juice. Examine microscopic slides showing the 
starch granules. 
Outline. 

(1) Source of each : — 

A. "Tapioca. 

Cassava plant. 
Native of South America. 
Family — Spurge. 
Part used — root. 
Preparation : — 

Roots grated, starch washed free from cellulose and the 
poisonous acrid juice. 

B. Arrowroot : — 

(1) Name came from poison found in root of an- 
other member of the same family, the poison 
being used by Indians to tip their arrows. 



82 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

(2) Native of West Indies. True arrowroot comes 

from members of banana family. 

(3) Part used is root stock. 

(4) Florida arrowroot comes from root of a plant 

belonging to pine family. Arrowroot in China 
is from a water-lily. 
C. Sago: — 

From Sago Palm. 

Part used is the starch from the centre of trunk. 
Composition and food value ; 

Test with tincture of Iodine. 
Cookery : — 

Used as thickening agent in puddings and jellies. 
Practice : — 
Tapioca Cream. 
Tapioca Jelly. 
Sago Pudding. 
Delicate Pudding. 

(Using arrowroot starch.) 

Recipes for Pupils 

TAPIOCA CREAM 

\ cup tapioca, 
i cup water. 

1 cup milk. 

2 tablespoons sugar. 
Yolks 2 eggs. - 

Soak the washed tapioca over night in ^ cup water. In 
the morning add it to the milk in double boiler, and cook 
till tapioca is clear. 

Beat the sugar and yolks together till creamy, and slowly 
add the cooked tapioca and milk. Return then to double 
boiler, and cook and stir till product is creamy. It usually 
requires five minutes. Cool, and flavor with i teaspoon 
lemon or vanilla. 



STARCHY FOODS 83 

SAGO PUDDING 

\ cup sago. 
1 cup milk. 

1 egg. 

2 tablespoons sugar. 
T *g- teaspoon salt. 

i teaspoon vanilla. 
Wash the sago, and soak two hours in milk. Beat the egg 
and sugar together, add the milk and sago, the salt, and the 
vanilla. Place in pudding dish, and bake in slow oven one 
hour. Serve hot or cold. 

Corn 

Facts. — Corn, as it is called in United States, is an 
American plant belonging to the grass family. It is known 
as maize in England, as mais in Germany, and granturco in 
Italy. 

When ground, corn is known as Indian meal. In Italy 
this, made into a porridge or mush, forms a staple article of 
diet under the name of " polenta," in Ireland, " stirabout," 
and in British Honduras it is called "corn lob." 

In the United States this fine meal is used with wheat 
flour in making unleavened bread. In Mexico a preparation 
called tortillas is made from corn, which has been first soaked 
in lime water and then ground between a stone slab and a 
roller, formed into thin, flat cakes, and cooked on thin iron 
plates or heated stones. 

In our markets corn is found as meal, which is the entire 
kernel ground fine ; or, it is first soaked in lye solution to 
soften the outer coating, then rubbed and washed to remove 
it. The hulled corn is known, according to the size of the 
parts broken or split, as coarse hominy, fine hominy, grits, 
and samp. 

The hulled corn, steamed and rolled, is sold as corn 



84 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

flakes, or cerealine. Washed free from its cellulose, the 
residue is known as corn starch. 

Food Value. 

Because of the very small percentage of gluten, corn prod- 
ucts, as meal, may not be used alone to form light bread; but, 
mixed with flour, it forms a food somewhat less nutritious 
than wheat bread. 

Corn is quite rich in fats, but poor in protein, and stands, 
therefore, between rice and wheat in nutritive value. Alone, 
it cannot be used as a food, but eaten with milk or other 
product which supplies the lack in muscle food, it is a very 
fair food, though always rich in heat producers. 

It must always, no matter what the form, be thoroughly 
cooked if it is to be of most value. In preparing mush the 
product should be cooked at least two hours in a double 
boiler. 

Method. — Material. Corn on the ear with its husk show- 
ing ; pictures of corn fields and corn in shock. Samples of 
corn ; preparations in market. Iodine as test. 
Outline. 

(1) History — Native of United States. Introduction 

into England in 1846. Use in Italy. Use in 
Mexico. 

(2) Literature — " Hiawatha." 

" Mondamin," Bayard Taylor. 
" Corn Song," Whittier. 

(3) Botany — Name in various countries. 

Family — The Grasses. 
Varieties. 

White. 

Yellow. 

Ked. 

Sweet. 

Pop. 
Cultivation. 



STARCHY FOODS 85 

(4) Preparations in the Market : — 

Samp. 

Hominy — coarse, fine. 

Meal. 

Corn flour or starch. 

Cerealine flakes. 

Sweet corn. 

Pop corn. 

(5) Food Value. 

(6) Uses: — 

Breakfast food or grain. 

Bread. 

Vegetable. 

Grape sugar. 

Whiskey. 

Fodder for animals. 

Fuel in the "West. 

(7) Cookery: — 

Essentials. 

Soften cellulose, hydrate starch. Time de- 
pending on form. 

(8) Practice : — 

(a) Beview of use of starch as thickening agent. 

Green corn soup. 
Corn chowder. 

(b) Cooking of vegetables in boiling water : — 

Green corn on cob, boiled or steamed. 
Boiled hominy (5 hours). 

(c) Use as bread in different parts of the country: — 

Corn muffins. 

Corn cake. 

Hoe cake. 

Rhode Island johnny cake. 

Corn dodger. 

Indian bannock. 



86 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Have corn growing so that pupils are familiar with its 
appearance. Steam the green corn with its husks on if it 
be in season, otherwise use canned .corn in other recipes. 



GREEN CORN ON COB 

Eemove the husks and all " silk." Place at once in kettle 
of boiling water and boil the water ten minutes. 

Eemove from water, heap on a platter and serve at once ; or 

Eemove only the outer husks, leaving the inner delicate 

greener ones. Place in boiling water, and boil water fifteen 

minutes. When done, remove silky threads and serve in 

husks. 

GREEN CORN SOUP 

\ cup raw pulp from 3 ears ripe green corn ; 1 cup milk ; 
\ teaspoon sugar ; \ teaspoon salt ; y 1 ^ teaspoon white pepper ; 
1 teaspoon butter ; \ teaspoon flour. 

With a sharp knife score or cut through the middle of 
each row of kernels and then remove pulp by scraping. 
This secures the pulp free from tough wall of the grain. 

Break the cob in short pieces and cover with cold water. 
Eaise water to the boiling point and boil twenty minutes. 
Strain, and if there is not a cup of water add boiling water 
to fill cup. To this water add the pulp of kernels, and cook 
fifteen minutes ; then add the salt, pepper, sugar, and milk, 
and again warm in double boiler. Melt the butter, add the 
flour, and stir and cook thoroughly to change it to a gummy 
substance. Slowly add the milk and corn mixture and boil 
five minutes, or till smooth and creamy. 

Canned corn may be used in place of green corn. In this 
case cook the corn twenty minutes in boiling water and then 
press through a sieve to remove tough cell walls. 



STARCHY FOODS 87 



BOILED HOMINY 

1 part coarse hominy, 5 parts cold water. 

Soak the hominy in the water over night. Drain off the 
water and heat it to the boiling temperature; slowly add 
the soaked hominy, carefully stirring. Kaise all to the boil- 
ing point, place it in double boiler and cook four hours. If 
not soaked, five hours' cooking in double boiler is necessary. 

Serve as a breakfast grain or use seasoned with salt in 
form of vegetables. 

Fine hominy requires four parts of water and four hours' 
cooking in double boiler. 

Potatoes 

Facts. — Food Value. The potato contains about seventy- 
five per cent of water, or from fifteen to twenty per cent 
more than meats. 

The remaining one-fourth is mainly starch, the protein 
being but little over two per cent. 

Weight for weight the potato contains one-fourth as 
much starch as rice and one-fourth as much protein, but 
contains twice as much mineral matter. 

Man is able to digest nearly all the starch found in the 
potato, but only two-thirds of the protein, so that the potato 
is essentially a carbonaceous or starchy food, valuable only 
for heat production. Because of the mineral matter in 
potatoes they are classed among the valuable vegetable 
foods. 

Soaking peeled potatoes in cold water not only removes 
part of the starch, but wastes a very large portion of the 
small amount of protein in the potato, hence cooking the 
potato in boiling water with the skin on is the least waste- 
ful method. 



88 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

White Potato 

Materials. — Potatoes, eggs, meat, fat for deep frying, fat 
for sauteing, onion. 

Outline, 

(1) History: — 

Native of Chili, Peru, and Mexico. 

Introduced into Europe 1565. 

Became popular at end of eighteenth, century. 

(2) Botany: — 

Name — Solanum tuberosum. 

Family — Nightshade. (Egg plant and tomato 

belongs to same family.) 
Climate — Tropical and Temperate. 
Propagation — by buds or eyes in tubers. 
Part of plant used. 

(3) Composition: — 

[Note : — Peel or rind contains a poison dissipated by boiling tem- 
perature. ] 

(4) Food value. 

(5) Uses: — 

Vegetable. 
Laundry starch. 
Dextrin or British Gum. 
Grape sugar. 
Brandy. 

(6) Cookery: — 

(a) Boiled, 

Product used for Potato Balls. 

(b) Steamed, 

Product used for Lyonnaise potatoes. 

(c) Baked, 

Used for stuffed potatoes. 



STARCHY FOODS 89 

(d) Fried, 

Saratoga or French. 

(e) Saute, 
French potatoes. 

Points to note are that starch granules should be dry 
and mealy, cellulose softened, otherwise the product is not 
attractive. 

The sweet potato may be used in this lesson, but 
pupils should know that botanically they are not closely 
related. 

In frying the cellulose is toughened, leaving product 
stiff or hard. 

Recipes for Pupils 

POTATO BALLS 

Boil one medium-sized potato. When tender, mash 
thoroughly and add for every half cup potato \ teaspoon 
salt, Jg- teaspoon white pepper, 2 teaspoons beaten egg. 

Mix thoroughly and with floured hands shape into balls 
one and a half inches in diameter. Place them on an oiled 
granite pie plate, brush them with the beaten egg, and 
brown in a hot oven. Serve on platter around a meat 
product, as roast or braised meat, or serve in separate dish. 

LYONNAISE POTATOES 

Wash and remove eyes from one old potato. Place in 
steamer over boiling water and steam till tender. Ke- 
plenish with boiling water, as, if steaming stops, the 
potato will be watery. 

When just tender place the potato in the oven to dry for a 
few moments. Bemove skin by drawing it off without cut- 
ting the potato. Cool. When cold cut the potato into dice 
and season with salt and pepper. 



90 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Cook 1 teaspoon onion in 1 tablespoon butter till onion is 
brown. Add the potato and continue to cook, shaking the 
dish to hasten the absorption of the butter by the potato. 
Add \ teaspoon chopped parsley, and serve hot, piled on a 
warm platter. 

SAUTED POTATOES 

These are prepared as in recipe for Lyonnaise potatoes, 
except that the onion is omitted. 

STUFFED POTATOES 

Select smooth, even-sized potatoes, scrub, and place in hot 
oven till when fork is inserted steam escapes. This takes 
about 45 minutes. While hot, cut slices from top of each, 
and scoop out the inside. Mash it quickly and season with 
1 teaspoon butter, ^ teaspoon salt, and 1 tablespoon finely 
chopped ham to every half cup mashed potato. Fill the 
skins with this mixture, rounding it slightly above the 
edge. Set in the oven to brown the tops — about 5 minutes. 

SARATOGA POTATOES 

Wash and pare a potato of even diameter. Slice (with 
vegetable chipper) into ice water. Let them soak two hours. 
Drain, and dry quickly between cloths. Immerse a few at 
a time in smoking hot fat (185° C). Keep them turning till 
a golden brown. Drain, and place the slices on unglazed 
paper. Salt, and serve hot. They may be made several 
days before using and then warmed in the oven. 

Transformation of Starch into More Soluble 

Compounds 

Method. — Materials. Crackers, bread, corn starch, acid, 
HC1 or H 2 S0 4 , Fehling's tablets, malt extract, grape sugar. 
Test-tubes. 



STARCHY FOODS 91 

Outline. 

(1) By Heat : Review of work on dextrin, chew crust of 
bread and note sweet flavor. 

(2) During Fermentation : To thin, warm, but not hot, 
flour paste add yeast solution. 

Experiment 12. (a) 1 teaspoon flour; 2 tablespoons 
boiling water; \ yeast cake dissolved in 1 teaspoon cool 
water. Leave for 3 hours in warm place. 

(b) To 1 teaspoonful of the solution add a Fehling's test 
tablet, to be procured at any drug store. Apply heat 
gently. 

Repeat this experiment, using unfermented starch paste. 

The starch solution should remain blue in color, while the 
fermented product should turn yellow or red, showing pres- 
ence of a sugar. 

Should starchy foods be cooked ? 

Experiment 13. Prepare a starch paste as in Experi- 
ment 4 and add to cool product amylolytic extract of pan- 
creas (purchased in druggist's shop). Leave for half or 
one hour. Test with Fehling's reaction. 

Experiment 14. Let each pupil chew for a long time a 
piece of cracker and tell what taste is developed. 

Resume of digestion of starch and its use in human 
economy. 

When may infants be fed starchy foods and be able to 
digest them ? 

Malt Extract. 

Experiment 15. To starch paste add malt extract and 
leave for one hour. Test with Fehling's tablet. 

May malt extract be used with starchy foods ? 

The experiments in this lesson may be performed before 
the class, but if possible let the pupils do the work so that 
they may gain a clearer insight into the subject. 

Let each pupil see that her saliva is alkaline, using a tiny 



92 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

piece of red litmus paper. Between meals the reaction may 
be very faint. 

Let eacli pupil write an essay on digestion of starch. 

Starchy Foods for the Sick 

Materials. — Bice, milk, cream, eggs, sugar, malt extract, 
bread, Fehling's tablet, baby foods as found in the market, 
iodine. 
Outline. 

(1) Beview of digestion of starch. See p. 66. 

(2) Starch partially changed into soluble form by long 

cooking. 

(3) Starch changed into dextrin by high heat. 

(4) Starch changed into maltose by action of malt extract. 
Practice. 

Cream of Rice Soup. — (a) Boil rice in white stock till 
very tender. 

(b) Put through sieve. 

(c)« Add cream and season with salt and pepper. 

Proportion : \ cup rice, 1 pint soup stock, 1 tablespoon 
cream, salt and pepper. 

Rice Cream. — Cook rice with milk in double boiler for 
three hours. Bub through sieve, add sugar and salt. Heat 
and pour on to beaten eggs. Beturn to double boiler and 
cook till creamy, — five minutes. Flavor with lemon. 

2 tablespoons rice, 2 cups milk, 2 tablespoons sugar, 1 salt 
spoon salt, 2 eggs. 

(3) Bread made into toast by long heating in oven or till 
golden brown throughout ; dipped in hot milk and served 
on hot plate with cream sauce. 

(4) Rice Gruel. — 2 tablespoons cooked rice, 1 pint milk. 
Cook together in double boiler half hour, put through sieve, 
season with salt and pepper and add one tablespoon malt 
extract. Leave for one hour and serve either cold or hot. 



STARCHY FOODS 93 

Impress the necessity of thorough cooking of starchy 
foods when they are to be used in diet for the sick. 

Insist on toast being made correctly and served daintily 
and hot. 

Let part of the rice gruel be tested with Fehling's reaction 
to show presence of maltose. 

Give talk on baby foods and dangers from their use. 
Test them with iodine. 

ADVANCED COURSE — STARCHY FOODS, AND HOW 
TO COOK THEM 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chemistry in Daily Life, Lassar and Cohn ; Chemistry of Cookery, 
W. M. Williams ; Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, Richards and 
Elliott ; Handbook of Household Science, Youmans ; Organic Chem- 
istry and Inorganic Chemistry, Remsen ; Practical Dietetics, Thomp- 
son ; Food and Feeding (new ed. ) , Thompson ; Foods, Church ; 
Food, Smith ; Food Composition and Analysis, Blyth ; Food in 
Health and Disease, Yeo ; The Story of the Bacteria, Prudden ; The 
Story of 'Germ Life, Conn ; Foods, Atwater ; Farmer's Bulletin, No. 23 
(to be obtained gratis from Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D.C.) ; Investigations on the Chemistry and Economy of Foods, 
Atwater, Bulletin 21, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1895 (to be 
obtained for fifteen cents from Superintendent of Documents, Wash- 
ington, D.C.) ; Boston Cook Book, Lincoln ; Boston School Text-book, 
Farmer ; Physiology for Beginners, Foster and Shore ; Physiological 
Chemistry, Novy ; Essentials of Chemical Physiology, Halliburton. 



NOVEMBER 



FOODS 



By L. L. W. WILSON, Ph.D., 

Of the Philadelphia Normal School 



CHAPTER IV 

FOODS 

By L. L. W. WILSON, Ph.D. 

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, Mrs. Richards and Miss ElMott ; 
Food Materials and their Adulterations, Mrs. Richards ; Chemistry of 
Cookery, W. Mathieu Williams ; Food and its Functions, James 
Knight; Foods, Smith; Science of Nutrition, Edward Atkinson; 
Food Products of the World, Dr. Mary Green ; Food in Health and 
Disease, Dr. I. Burney Yeo ; Food and Feeding (last edition), Sir 
Henry Thompson ; Rumford Kitchen Leaflets. 

The following invaluable pamphlets may be had free on application 
to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. : Farmers' Bul- 
letins : No. 23, Food, Nutritive Value and Cost ; No. 29, Souring of 
Milk, and Other Changes in Milk Products ; No. 34, Meats, Composi- 
tion and Cooking ; No. 42, Facts about Milk ; No. 57, Butter-Making 
on the Farm; No. 63, Care of Milk on the Farm; No. 71, Some 
Essentials of Beef Production ; No. 74, Milk as Food ; No. 93, Sugar 
as Food, Mary Hinman Abels. 

Bulletin No. 21, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1895, Investiga- 
tions on the Chemistry and Economy of Food, Atwater. This may 
be obtained for fifteen cents from the Superintendent of Documents, 
Washington, D.C. 

The following magazine articles may be of value : Forum, vol. 13, 
p. 448 ; vol. 16, p. 110. Century, vol. 11, p. 238 ; vol. 12, pp. 59, 237, 
397, 733; vol. 14, pp. 135, 257; vol. 21, p. 101. Popular Science 
Monthly, vol. 22, p. 677 ; vol. 26, p. 468 ; vol. 29, pp. 63, 250. Chau- 
tauquau, vol. 22, p. 577 ; vol. 23, p. 174. McClure, vol. 3, p. 303. 

The files and the current numbers of the American Kitchen Maga- 
zine are suggestive and valuable. Especially valuable in this connection 
h 97 



98 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

are the following : vol. 4, Water and Air as Food, p. 257 ; Experi- 
ments with Starch, p. 218 ; vol. 5, Drinking Water for Summer 
Tourists, p. 141 ; vol. 6, Diet in Health, p. 156 ; Providing Food for 
a Typical American Family, p. 26 ; Experiments with Milk, p. 263 ; 
vol. 4, Experiments with Albumen, Fish, and Meats, pp. 66, 230. 

See also the bibliography given in the chapter on Starchy Foods, on 
Fish, on Bread, and on Cooking of Proteids. 

Although none of the books whose titles are given above are either 
too technical or too expensive eventually to form a part of the working 
library of the grade teacher, yet for the benefit of those who have not 
access to large libraries, the writer would suggest beginning with the 
government publications, later adding to these Mrs. Richards's two 
little books, Dr. Green's Food Products, Yeo's Food in Health and 
Disease, Thomspon's Practical Dietetics, and Mathieu Williams's 
Chemistry of Cookery. 

Food. — Atwater defines food as material which, when 
taken into the body, serves either to form tissue or yield 
energy, or both. This definition, he says, includes all 
ordinary food materials, since they both build tissue and 
yield energy. It includes sugar and starch, because they 
yield energy and form fatty tissue. It excludes the so- 
called nitrogenous extractives of meat (the chief part of 
beef tea), and likewise tea and coffee, because they neither 
build tissue nor yield energy, although they may at times 
be useful aids to nutrition. 

Milk 

Facts. — Milk contains all the elements needed for food, 
and each in about the right proportion. It is, moreover, 
easy to digest. For these reasons it has been justly called 
a perfect food. It is not only the exclusive food during the 
more or less brief infancy of the mammals, but many adults, 
even at the present time, live for the most part on it, drink- 
ing from four to seven pints per day. This is true of the 
Swedish and Norwegian peasants, the inhabitants of Swit- 



FOODS 99 

zerland and the Tyrol, the Bedouins of Arabia, and the 
people dwelling in the mountainous regions of Asia, and on 
the pasture lands of the Sahara. 

It is the main dependence of the modern physician in 
treatment of fever, and for invalids generally. 

In earlier ages, and indeed even now in many countries, 
it was the milk of asses, goats, camels, that was common. 
Now it is the milk of the cow that is the best known. This 
is because no other animal can be so easily and economically 
kept and propagated in proportion to its milk and meat pro- 
ducing powers. 

It is absolutely necessary that the milk should be a good 
quality, unadulterated with water, and from healthy, well- 
fed animals. Only an expert chemist is able to pronounce 
accurately upon the quality of milk; but public attention 
has been called of late so much to the subject of milk that 
it is quite possible, even in cities, to secure good milk by 
paying a fair price for it. 

Milk undiluted with water clings to the glass. This is 
a much safer test than depending upon the color. That 
may be due to annetto. 

It should be kept from the beginning in absolutely clean 
vessels, and in a cool place. 

Cream. — After the milk has stood for some hours the 
cream rises to the top. This may form a thick layer, one- 
fifth of the total thickness, or it may be very much thinner, 
depending for the most part upon the breed of cow. 

Butter. — Even a superficial examination shows that cream 
is very rich in fat. When it is agitated for some time — 
churned — this fat shakes itself free from its curdy en- 
velope, and is collected together in the form of butter. 

Butter still contains some water and a very small per cent 
of curd. An excess of either of these elements will inter- 
fere with its keeping, and cause it to become rancid. For 






100 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

this reason it is always washed and pressed as free from 
these as possible. 

Butter must be kept in clean, closed dishes. Even a few 
hours' exposure will injure its flavor. No place needs to be 
cleaner than a dairy, and no place is cleaner than an up-to- 
date butter factory. 

Oleomargarine, well made, looks like butter, tastes like it, 
and will keep sweet much longer than the real article. It 
is, moreover, cheaper. It is made from animal fats by a 
chemical process, the principle of which was discovered 
during the Franco-Prussian War, and used by its discoverer 
to supply the French army with butter. 

There is not the slightest objection to buying, selling, and 
using it, under its proper name ; but, of course, no one 
wishes to pay for it the higher price of butter. 

Buttermilk. — " A man may live without bread, but with- 
out buttermilk he dies," says a proverb of one of the shep- 
herd tribes of India. The laborers of Ireland, Scotland, 
some parts of England, and in South Wales, as well as the 
inhabitants of India, know its food value and drink large 
quantities of it. It is, of course, very like skim milk in 
composition. The principal difference is that some of its 
sugar may have changed to lactic acid. To this it owes its 
peculiar and usually pleasant, slightly acid flavor. 

" Curds and Whey.' ' — If to buttermilk or skim milk a 
little vinegar is added, the fluid will separate into two parts 
— a solid, the curd, and a watery fluid, whey. 

The same result may be obtained by letting the milk 
" sour " by long standing. The resultant of the latter pro- 
cess is called bonny clabber. When this is heated and 
strained, our familiar cottage cheese is made. 

These curds consist, for the most part, of the protein of 
the milk. In the whey are salts and free acids and water. 
These may be shown by evaporating the whey. 



FOODS 101 

Composition of Milk. — In other words, this crude analysis 
of milk has shown that it is composed of fat, sugar, curd 
(protein), water, and salts of various kinds. As a matter of 
fact, the composition of milk may be roughly stated about 
as follows : — 

Water 87 

Milk sugar 047 

Fat 04 

Curd 036 

Salts 007 

Each of these constituents of milk may be considered as 
the representative of a large class of foods. To give them 
their scientific terms, sugar represents the carbohydrates ; 
butter, the fats, or hydrocarbons ; curd, the proteids ; whey, 
water and the mineral salts. It is scarcely necessary to 
learn these terms until later, provided that in your own 
mind you put the sugars and starches into one pigeon-hole ; 
the fats and oils into another ; curd (cheese), meat, white 
of an egg, into another. 

Method. — Discuss milk. Eemind the children of their early 
days. Allow them, within limits, to give their later experi- 
ences with cows. 

As to its quality, taste, color, etc. Eemind them and 
impress upon them the necessity for absolute cleanliness in 
caring for it. 

Put a half-pint of thick cream in a jar. While each 
child is taking her turn at shaking it vigorously, the others 
may examine smaller portions of cream, comparing it with 
milk. 

In about fifteen minutes, with good luck, butter will come. 

How does this differ from our butter ? What should we 
do to it ? 

Fresh butter is delicious. Even jaded American palates 



102 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

may be made to appreciate it if it is eaten upon saltine 
crackers and with it is drunk a cupful of the buttermilk. 

Tell the children of the healthy European custom of a 
slight early breakfast of bread, freshly made butter, and 
perhaps honey. Tell them, too, that Americans are recog- 
nized because they will insist upon " gilding the lily," that 
is to say, salting their butter. 

Make bonny clabber, or to milk let each student add a 
little vinegar. What has happened ? What do the curds 
look like ? What do they taste like ? How is cheese 
made ? 

What does whey taste like ? What does it look like ? 

Of what five things, then, is milk composed ? 

Drill on the component parts of milk. Ask them to give 
other foods that contain fats, sugars, protein, w r ater. 

Protein 

Protein may be considered under three heads, the pro- 
teids, proper, the so-called " extractives," and the amids. 
The extractives give flavor to the meat, and are readily ex- 
tracted from it with cold water. They are in consequence 
the chief ingredients of beef tea. The amids, vegetable ex- 
tractives, are found in asparagus, potato, turnips, beets, and 
many other foods. 

The proteids are also called nitrogenous compounds. 
This name has as much reason for being as that of proteids, 
for they are the only class of foods containing nitrogen. 

Nevertheless, in spite of the excellent reasons for call- 
ing these food materials nitrogenous compounds, the term 
usually applied and generally preferred is protein for the 
whole, and proteids for the tissue-forming parts. 

The white of eggs, the curd of milk, lean meat (muscle), 
gluten of wheat, gelatin and glue from bones and gristle, 
are the commonest proteids. 



FOODS 103 

Of these, gelatin, glue, and gristle are commonly called 
gelatinoicls. They do not help to build up the body, but 
they are useful fuel foods, and for this reason protect the 
real " flesh formers " from consumption. 

These real flesh formers, or muscle formers as they are 
sometimes called, are the albuminoids. This is a word 
properly restricted to the first proteids mentioned, viz., the 
white of the egg (albumen, hence the name), lean meat, 
curd of milk, gluten of wheat, etc. The albuminoids serve 
as fuel, too, but their chief function is the manufacture in 
the body of muscle, tendon, and cartilage. 

Not only are meats, fish, eggs, and milk rich in protein, 
but so also are many foods of vegetable origin, notably peas, 
beans, wheat and graham flour, and oatmeal. But the pro- 
tein of vegetables is much less easily and completely di- 
gested than that of animals, and therefore they are not 
nearly as valuable food stuffs as the more easily digested 
meats. For " we live not upon what we eat, but upon what 
we digest." 

Summary.* 

f Albuminoids (flesh formers, sometimes also fuel 
food). 
White of egg. 
Curd of milk. 
I. Proteids i Lean meat. 
Gluten. 
Gelatinoids (fuel foods). 
Gelatin from bones. 
Gristle. 
II. Extractives (stimulants only). 

Flavoring juices of meat. 
III. Amids (fuel foods). 

Found in potatoes and other vegetables, also in the fruits. 

* This summary, slightly adapted from Atwater, is given for the benefit 
of the teacher. She must remember that the gelatinoids, extractives, and 
amids, after all, make but a small part of the protein of foods; that, 



104 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

The simplest test for albumen is the fact that it is con- 
gested by heat; this is the test for albumen used by phy- 
sicians in diagnosing diseases of the kidneys. 

Add to a test-tube one-third full of the suspected fluid 
two or three drops of strong nitric acid. Heat gently — a 
pale yellow color will result. Allow the liquid to cool. 
Add a few drops of ammonia. A deep yellow color indicates 
the presence of ammonia ; a deep orange color indicates the 
presence of albumen. 

Method. — The relation of the white of an egg to the yolk, 
its color and its consistency, are too well known and too obvi- 
ous to be made the subject of much study. Instead, ask the 
question : Is the white of the egg perfectly soluble in cold 
water? Let the children experiment. What is the effect 
of heat upon it ? Let them boil water in which the albumen 
has been dissolved, first filtering it. 

Teach them the name of this class of foodstuffs, and their 
great value in repairing the body. They and their kind are 
the only flesh builders ; other foods are fuel foods. Eemind 
them of the previous experiment with curds, and tell them 
that the great value of meats and fish lies in the fact that 
they, too, are rich in proteids. 

These are all of animal origin. Do any foods of vegetable 
origin contain proteids ? Why do you think so ? (Herbiv- 
orous animals must get their flesh builders from the vege- 
table kingdom.) 

Let each child chew a handful of clean wheat, breaking 
the grains carefully in the mouth, and chewing with the idea 
of making wheat gum. The action of the saliva removes 

therefore, it is approximately correct to speak of the protein or proteids, 
or nitrogenous foods, as the flesh formers. It is much better to teach this 
thoroughly than that the children should have in their minds a painfully 
distorted picture of the truth, in which, owing to the difficulty of teaching 
them, the amids, extractives, and gelatinoids are very much in the fore- 
ground. 



FOODS 105 

from the wheat its starch, sugar, and some of the oils. 
Practically only the tenacious gluten is left. This is almost 
pure protein. Iodine may be used to prove the original 
presence of the starch and its disappearance, resulting from 
the process of chewing. 

The presence of gluten in flour may be demonstrated by 
letting each child wash thoroughly a small quantity of it 
loosely tied in a cheese-cloth bag. The starch and sugar is 
washed away. The gummy mass left behind is almost pure 
protein. 

For the clearer understanding of gelatinoids it might be 
well first to use two familiar experiments to demonstrate the 
dual composition of bones. 

First, burn a good-sized bone in a hot fire, protecting it 
from the charring contact with the flame, if possible. All 
the animal matter will be burned out, leaving behind only a 
white, porous, limy framework. Children will do this 
work at home under direction, and love to own and exhibit 
the resulting specimens. 

Second, cover a fair-sized clean bone with dilute hydro- 
chloric acid over night. In the morning the salts of lime 
will be dissolved. The animal matter which remains is of 
the nature of gristle. The bone may be twisted and bent, or 
even tied in a knot, with ease. 

This animal matter is a gelatinoid. 

To show this let perfectly clear bones simmer for several 
hours. Let each child examine the water. Eemove the 
bones. Evaporate the greater portion of the water by 
boiling. Set the rest away to cool. Show the class the 
jelly-like resulting gelatinoid. It will dissolve again by 
warming it. 

To demonstrate the extractives, let each child examine 
a small piece of raw lean meat, noting in passing the 
muscle fibres and connective tissues. Let each put her 



106 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

piece in cold, slightly salted water, watching the extraction 
of the juices, and later examining both the meat and the 
liquid. 

The object of these experiments has been merely to 
familiarize the children with the various forms of protein, 
to add to his vocabulary the words proteids and extrac- 
tives, with possibly the terms albuminoids and gelatlnoids, 
although these last terms are not nearly so essential as the 
facts concerning them. 

The Carbohydrates 

By this term is meant compounds made up of the carbon, 
and hydrogen and oxygen, in certain definite proportions. 

In this class may be included starch, the sugars, cellulose. 

For facts concerning them and methods of teaching see 
the chapter on Starchy Foods. 

The Hydrocarbons 

Facts. — The hydrocarbons (fats and oils) contain the 
same chemical elements as the carbohydrates, viz., carbon, 
hydrogen, oxygen, but the relative proportion of the oxy- 
gen is much smaller. For their combustion in the body, 
therefore, more oxygen must be taken from the air. Conse- 
quently from them a greater quantity of heat is evolved. 
They are obviously the most efficient fuel foods, and are, 
therefore, relatively more used in the northern climes, and 
in dead of winter, than in warmer regions and in summer. 
Luckily instinct taught us this long before science demon- 
strated it. 

Fats are also stored up in the body for times of need. 
It is thought that they pass through the mouth and stomach 
absolutely unchanged. Even the bile and pancreatic juice 



FOODS 107 

seem only to emulsify it, and this, after all, is merely a 
physical change. The finely divided oil is carried by the 
blood and deposited in the spaces between the muscle 
bundles, ready to be used when needed. 

Fat is found in most food materials. It is found in large 
quantities in meats (tallow, lard) ; in milk (butter) ; in 
various vegetables, such as cotton seed, olives, etc. 

Method. — Show the children fat in connection with meal. 
What is it? What color is it? Have you ever seen it 
yellow in color ? What did that indicate ? (Age.) Heat 
the fat. What change takes place ? 

Do we get fats or oils in vegetable food ? Why do you 
think so ? 

Distribute an oily seed, such as nutmegs, cotton seed, 
peanuts, or nuts of any kind, squash. If necessary tell 
the children to remove the outer coat. Prick with a pin. 
Oil will at once ooze out. 

Tell me at what time of the year you are most inclined to 
eat fats. What people eat fat more eagerly than we do ? 
Why? What then is the use of fat food to us? Are 
the other foods, too, available as fuels ? (Even the proteids 
may be consumed for fuel.) What advantage, then, to eat 
fats when food fuel is needed ? (To save the proteids for 
their more important and untransferable work — of building 
up the tissues.) 

Inorganic Food Materials 

Salt. — Of these the commonest is common salt, but 
the lime salts, iron, magnesia, potash, and phosphorous, 
are also necessary. They are, however, contained in suf- 
ficient quantities in various common articles of diet. Let- 
tuce, for example, furnishes plenty of potash. Salt, 
however, is added from without. So necessary is it to 
man that when the need for revenue was most urgent in 



108 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

India, France, and other countries, then recourse was 
always had to the "salt tax," since even the poorest 
would buy salt regardless of the increase in price. The 
salt licks of the prairie or deserts are greatest attractions 
of these regions to all the animals near. 

About half a pound of salt is the normal quantity in an 
adult's body. Since this constantly wastes away in tears, 
and in sweat, it is necessary that it should be constantly 
replenished. Nevertheless, the amount of salt used is often 
excessive and is the result of a dulled sense of taste and 
of habit, rather than necessity. 

Such expressions as "the salt of life," "Attic salt," "to 
taste a man's salt," and "he flavors his food with salt" (mean- 
ing he is wealthy) show the esteem in which salt has been 
held from the earliest times. It is a symbol of wisdom and 
wit and hospitality, and in the African gold coast region, of 
wealth. There formerly a slave or two could be purchased 
for a handful of salt. The best table salt is most cheaply 
made by evaporating water from salt springs. This busi- 
ness is carried on in an extensive scale in New York, Mich- 
igan, Ohio, Virginia, and West Virginia. 

It is also produced from sea- water and mined as rock salt. 

Water 

Water, constituting as it does about eighty-seven per cent 
of the whole bulk of the body, wasting every moment, too, 
must be of necessity a most important element of food. 

Says Edward Smith in "Foods": — 

" It is required for many purposes : First, to soften or dis- 
solve solid foods so as to facilitate their mastication and 
digestion ; second, to maintain a due bulk of blood and the 
structures of the body ; third, to keep substances in solution 
or suspension, whilst moving in the body ; fourth, to supply 
elements in the chemical changes of the body ; fifth, to 



FOODS 109 

enable the waste materials to be carried away from the body ; 
sixth, to discharge superfluous heat by transpiration through 
the skin, and by emissions though other outlets ; and sev- 
enth, to supply in convenient form heat to, or to abstract 
heat from, the body. Some of these functions are performed 
by water in its liquid state, and others in a state of vapor." 

Our foods contain more or less water. "In general," says 
Atwater [Gov. Eeport " Foods "], " animal foods contain the 
most water and vegetable foods the most nutrients, though 
potatoes and turnips are exceptions, the former being three- 
fourths and the latter nine-tenths water. Butter, on the 
other hand, though one of the animal foods, generally has 
only ten or more per cent water. The milk from which it is 
made is not far from seven-eighths water. Meats have more 
water in proportion as they have less fats ; and vice versa, the 
fatter the meat the less the amount of water in it. The 
flesh of fish is in general more watery than ordinary meats. 
Flour and meal have but little water, and sugar when well 
dried has almost none." 

The best and most agreeable water for drinking purposes 
is moderately soft spring water. Where this cannot be 
obtained, soft surface water may be used, provided that it 
is sand filtered before it reaches the consumer. Unless 
this is known to be very perfectly done, it is safer to boil 
it ten minutes, setting it away in a refrigerator in clean 
glass bottles. Water so treated is cool enough to be agree- 
able to the taste, not cold enough to chill the stomach, 
and absolutely free from disease bacteria. 

The worst water for drinking is that from wells. This 
water source is so commonly used in the country, and such 
a prolific cause of disease, that any one thinking of going to 
a new resort, even for a limited stay, should first investigate 
the water supply. 

It is said that an active person needs three quarts of 



110 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

water per day. A great deal of this water is contained in 
the food, of course ; but it is certainly true that most of us 
drink too little, rather than too much water. 

It should be taken with meals, but, of course, washing 
down the food with its aid, instead of solely by means of 
the muscles of the gullet, is objectionable. 

Oxygen 

Oxygen, like water, is essential to the final development 
of food into energy or into actual tissue, and in this sense 
may be called a food. Too much emphasis, therefore, can- 
not be laid upon the necessity of fresh air in connection 
w r ith eating, in spite of the fact that it is a text from which 
we preach in almost every other subject in domestic science. 
As Dr. Edw. Smith says, in "Foods " : — 

" The necessity for oxygen as a food is absolute and 
unintermittent. When the mixed gases of the atmosphere 
are received into the lungs, a portion is absorbed by the 
blood, and the oxygen combines with the carbon, nitrogen, 
and hydrogen of foods, and in all the vital processes, to 
form compounds.' Some of these compounds remain for a 
time in the body, and form a part of its substance ; but a far 
greater proportion, after producing heat, leave the body as 
water and carbonic acid, or other compounds, and are 
called excreta. The body is a great oxidizing apparatus, by 
which it sustains its bulk, produces heat, and modifies the 
composition of the atmosphere. When it casts off that 
which, having been used is no longer useful- to it, it not 
only deteriorates the atmosphere, but renders it impure. 
It is not too general an expression to say that every thought 
and act of man, as well as every action within his body, is 
accompanied by the consumption of oxygen and deterio- 
ration of surrounding air." 



FOODS 111 

Method. — Since the study of water has been outlined in 
the chapter on the Laundry, and the study of oxygen in 
connection with that on the Kitchen, the teacher is advised 
to refer to these chapters. In all probability, the best 
method to be pursued with the study of the inorganic 
constituents of food, is to teach them in reading and 
language lessons. 



DECEMBER 



FOODS (Continued): 
Food Values, Dietaries, Food Economy 

DEINKS : 
Tea, Coffee, Cocoa 

ADVANCED COUESE : 
Proteids and How to Cook Them 

By L. L. W. WILSON, Ph.D., 

Of the Philadelphia Normal School 



CHAPTER V 
FOODS (Continued) 

The chart on p. 117 is self-explanatory except for the 
term calories. 

A calorie in this table is the unit of the measure of energy 
developed as food is consumed in the body. It is the amount 
of heat that would be required to raise the temperature of 
one pound of water four degrees. 

In one pound of protein and also of carbohydrates there 
are 1860 calories ; in a pound of fat, 4220 calories. That is 
to say one pound of lean meat is equivalent to a pound of 
starch or of sugar in its capacity for giving energy. Less 
than half a pound of fat would yield the same amount of 
energy. 

But we must not forget in this connection that the chief 
function of protein is that of a tissue builder, while the fats 
and starches are worthless for this purpose except as they 
save the protein from being consumed as fuel. 

A glance at the chart shows that the best tissue builders, 
since they contain relatively large quantities of protein, 
are cheese, beef, beans, mutton, mackerel, codfish, oatmeal. 
Let us look at beef in detail. It contains both fuel food 
(fat in this case) and tissue builder (protein), but fat is 
difficult of digestion and to many unpalatable. It would be 
well then to supplement the beef with some other food in 
which the carbohydrates (the other fuel food) are in excess. 
This is true of wheat and corn bread, of oatmeal, rice, 
potato, and sugar. Of these the most palatable additions to 

115 



116 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

a beef diet are without doubt potato, bread, rice, beans. 
The same statements are true of the other meats and fish 
mentioned; and of cheese. Moreover, the protein of cheese 
is too concentrated for exclusive diet of any but hardy 
mountaineers. 

But how about beans, oatmeal ? The food stuffs repre- 
sented are various enough and are in approximately the 
right proportions. As a matter of fact, oatmeal and milk 
is the main article of food in Scotland ; but unless properly 
cooked (see starches, p. 64), it is difficult of digestion, and 
then so expanded by this cooking that it is difficult to 
swallow enough of it. 

The protein in the case of beans is abundant, Tout at the 
same time it is much more difficult of digestion than the 
protein of meats. This is also true of the protein of oat- 
meal. As in oatmeal, too, long cooking is needed on 
account of the starches. 

All things considered, meat, or fish, and potatoes, or other 
starchy vegetables, make the basis for the most useful and 
easily digested diet for man. 

Even this superficial examination of the chart will sug- 
gest to most of us that our diet is not, perhaps, just what it 
should be. Atwater says that we make four mistakes. 

(1) We purchase needlessly expensive kinds of foods. 
We use the costlier kinds of meats, fish, and vegetables 
when the less expensive ones are just as nutritious, and when 
rightly cooked just as palatable. 

(2) Our diet is apt to be one-sided. On the whole we eat 
too much of the fuel foods, and too little of the tissue 
builders; in other words, too much oil, starch, and sugar, 
in proportion to meat and fish. 

(3) We use excessive quantities of food. Much food is 
wasted and too much is often eaten. 

(4) We do not know how to cook. 



FOODS 



117 



Nutrients. 
a 



Non-nutrients. 



1=] 



Protein . 



Flesh-forming 
substances 



Fats. 



Carbo- Mineral 

hydrates. matters. 



Water. Refuse. 



Fuel value. 
Calories . 



Fuel ingredients , 



■ Nutrients, etc., per ct. 



10 



20 



30 



10 



50 



60 



70 



80 



90 10 



Fuel value, calories 



100 



800 1200 1600 2000 2100 2000 3200 3G00 10 




Cow's milk 



Cheese. 



in 



Butter 



Wheat bread. 



Wheat flour. 



Corn meal 



Oatmeal . 



.Beans . 



Bice. 



Potatoes 



Sugar.. 







HJ 



Chart I. — Composition of Food Materials 



118 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Valuable as Chart I. is, it must be supplemented by 
figures. Therefore the following table, also compiled from 
Atwater, is given : — 

Composition of Food Materials 



Including refuse : 
Beef, round . . 
Beef, sirloin . . 
Mutton, leg . . 
Pork . . . . 
Salmon, whole . 
Mackerel, whole 
Cod, dressed . , 
Oysters in shell . 



Excluding refuse 
Beef, round 
Beef, sirloin 
Mutton, leg 



Cod : . . 

Oysters 
Milk . . 
Butter . . 
Cheese . . 
Potatoes . 
Beans . . 
Rice . . . 
Corn meal 
Oatmeal . 
Wheat flour 
Wheat bread 



Sugar 



7.8 
3.2 
18.1 
14.6 
35.3 
44.6 
29.9 
82.4 



00.9 
40.9 
50.6 
43.0 
40.6 
40.4 
58.5 
15.3 



68.2 
42.2 
61.8 
82.6 
87.2 
87.0 
10.5 
30.2 
78.9 
68.5 
12.4 
15.0 

7.8 
12.5 
32.3 

2.0 



Nutrients 


It 

c 


.5 
"55 




■ o 


.5 * 


31.3 


18.0 


12.3 




1.0 


55.9 


12.9 


42.3 


— 


0.7 


31.3 


15.0 


15.6 


— 


0.7 


42.4 


13.6 


28.0 


— 


0.8 


24.1 


14.3 


8.8 


— 


1.0 


15.0 


10.0 


4.3 


— 


0.7 


11.6 


10.6 


0.2 


— 


0.8 


2.3 


1.1 


0.2 


0.6 


0.4 


31.8 


20.5 


10.1 




1.2 


57.8 


13.3 


43.7 


— 


0.8 


38.2 


18.3 


19.0 


— 


0.9 


17.4 


15.8 


0.4 


— 


1.2 


12.8 


6.3 


1.6 


4.0 


0.9 


13.0 


3.6 


4.0 


4.7 


0.7 


89.5 


1.0 


85.0 


0.5 


3.0 


69.8 


28.3 


35.5 


1.8 


4.2 


21.1 


2.1 


0.1 


17.9 


0.1 


31.5 


7.1 


0.7 


22.0 


1.7 


87.6 


7.4 


0.4 


79.4 


0.4 


85.0 


9.2 


3.8 


70.6 


1.4 


92.2 


14.7 


7.1 


68.4 


2.0 


87.5 


11.0 


1.1 


74.9 


0.5 


67.7 


8.8 


1.7 


56.3 


0.9 


98.0 


— 


— 


97.8 


0.2 



to . 

3 3 

« 
to 
PR 



855 

2025 

935 

1435 

635 

370 

205 

40 



805 

2090 

1140 

310 

260 

325 

3615 

2070 

375 

570 

1630 

1645 

1845 

1645 

1280 

1820 



FOODS 



119 



American Dietary Standard (Atwater) 



Man or a woman 

with little physical exercise 
with light muscular work . 
moderate muscular work . 
active muscular work . . 
hard muscular work . . . 



Nutrients 


2 

o 
t-, 


02 


CO 


0.20 


0.20 


0.66 


0.22 


0.22 


0.77 


0.28 


0.28 


0.99 


0.33 


0.33 


1.10 


0.39 


0.55 


1.43 



2450 
2800 
3520 
4060 
5700 



Method. — Write on the board these words: Animal, 
Vegetable, and Mineral. Let the children make as long a 
list as possible of such foods as belong exclusively to each 
class. Let them make another list of articles of diet 
belonging partly to one and partly to another. See that 
these lists are fairly complete dietaries. 

Which of these foods are necessaries, appearing every 
day on the table ? Make a list of these and another of the 
luxuries. 

Write on the board the words : Summer Diet, Winter 
Diet. Let the children arrange all the foods given in one 
or the other or both of these new classes. 

Which list contains the most animal food? The most 
vegetable ? Check off all that contain water. 

In general, to which class of foods do the animal foods 
belong ? The vegetable ? What vegetables contain a 
great deal of protein ? What is the function of protein ? 
Of the starches and sugars ? Of fats and oils ? How much 
is needed of each daily ? How much of each do you eat ? 



120 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Show them that to discover this, it is necessary to keep 
careful lists of all that they eat, and in each case the 
quantity. 

For example : — The ordinary American breakfast con- 
sists of : Fruit, Cereal, Meat or Eggs, Bread and Butter, 
Water, Milk. 

The following weights are, of course, only approximate : 

The common fruits (except the banana) are mainly water, 
2 to 3 ounces. Cereal, 2 oz. With it is eaten 4 oz. milk 
and i oz. sugar. Eggs, 3^ oz. each. Bread, 4 oz. Butter, 
i oz. Glass of milk, 6 oz. Water, 8 oz. 

By consulting the table, the percentage of the proteids, 
carbohydrates, etc., in each article of diet — Multiply the 
quantity eaten by this percentage for the amount of each 
food constituent. Put down, too, the calories of available 
energies. For example : — 

4 oz. (milk) x .87 = 3.48 oz. (water). 

4 oz. (milk) x .036 = .144 oz. (protein). 

4 oz. (milk) x .04 = .16 oz. (fat). 

4 oz. (milk) x .047 = .188 oz. (carbohydrates). 

4 oz. (milk) x .007 = .028 oz. (mineral matter). 

1 lb. (32 oz.) milk = 325 calories. 

4 oz. milk = ^25 C> = 495 C> 

After computing in this way each constituent of the 
meal, add the several amounts and calories together. Is 
this a properly balanced meal ? Why ? 

Calculate in the same way any menu given. In most 
cases there will be either a deficiency, or more likely, an 
excess, of carbohydrates. In this case the important 
question is, How shall we remedy the defect ? Shall we 
add protein, or subtract carbohydrates ? Why do you 
think so ? How shall we do this ? Consult Chart I. 



FOODS 121 

These charts and tables may be enlarged and made per- 
manent. The best way to do this is to have a lantern slide 
made from the chart or table. This will cost about fifty 
cents. Then, with the lantern, project this on a piece of 
Holland linen, chart size, hung conveniently on the wall. 
Dip a camePs-hair brush in liquid India ink and rapidly 
trace upon the linen the lines projected on it. The size of 
the brush depends upon the desired width of lines. 

Give the children problems such as these to be worked 
out in the manner suggested above : — 

1. What is the food value of | lb. of sirloin steak ? 
Will this make a meal ? Why not ? With what must it 
be supplemented* (consult chart) ? Why ? 

2. What is the food value of \ lb. pork? Question 
as in 1. 

3. Of mackerel? 

4. Of oysters ? 

5. Of beans ? 

6. Of rice? 

7. Of bread? 

8. How much milk must be taken to give nourishment 
enough for one day, to a man with moderate muscular 
work ? 



122 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



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FOODS 



125 



Protein. Fats. Carbohydrates. Fuel value. 





3) «S 


JfcB 

fa " g 




Weights of nutrients and calories of energy 
in 25 cents' worth 






Cts. 


Lbs. 




1 Lbs. 


? Lbs. 5 L 


bs. 






2000 Cal. 


60C0 Cal. 10000 


CaL 




25.0 


1.00 








m 






■■ 




Beef, ronnd 


15.0 


1.67 


H'l 








Beef, neck 


6.0 


4.17 


-'•I ' J 




Mutton, leg 


22.0 


1.14 


m 




Ham, smoked , 


16.0 


1.56 


m\mm\ 




Salt pork, very fat 


12.0 


2.08 


1=1 


m wmm 






Codfish, fresh 


8.0 


3.13 


|fi 










Codfish, salt 


7.0 


3.57 


m 








Mackerel, salt 


12.0 


2. OS 


m 








Oysters, 35 cents quart 


18.0 


1.43 


1 








Eggs, 25 cents dozen 


14. J 


1.70 


1 








'Milk, 7 ceuts quart 


3.5 


7.14 


£tt 1 




Cheese, whole milk 


15.0 


1.67 


<: :'\ : - 


- ii 






Cheese, skim milk , 


8.0 


3.13 


m j 




Butter 


30.0 


C.83 


m^m 




Sugar 


5.0 


5.00 


1 






3.0 


8.33 


:....:, If : 




Wheat flour 


1 






7.0 


3.57 






Wheat bread 


11 1 






2.5 


10.00 




1.1 


-- " _ ■ ■■■-- 

> 




Corn meal 






Beans 


5.0 


5.00 


> II -1 




Potatoes 


1.9 


20.00 


: II 1 




Standard for daily diet for ) 


German* 


n i 








man at moderate work. ) 


Ame 


rican' 


1 i 











* Voit . -j- Atwater. 

Chart II. — Pecuniary Economy of Food : Amounts of actually 
Nutritive Ingredients obtained in Different Food Materials 
for Twenty-five Cents 



126 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

A glance at the chart shows at once that the most 
nutriment for the same price is furnished by wheat and corn. 
Next come oatmeal, potatoes, beans, rice, cheese, pork. It 
must be remembered, however, that potatoes, rice, and par- 
ticularly pork, contain very little protein, and that one ought 
to be willing to pay more for animal foods since they are 
not only more palatable, but their protein is more digestible. 
Nevertheless, the prejudice of people, particularly in Amer- 
ica, against the less expensive food is deplorable. At water 
tells the story of a butcher in the Boston markets who tried 
to persuade a poor seamstress that other parts of the meat 
were just as nutritious — and so they are — as the expensive 
tenderloin steak that she insisted upon having. She would 
not believe him and finally became quite angry at him for 
what she seemed to feel was almost a reflection on her 
character. " My wealthy customers take our cheaper cuts," 
he said, "but I have got through trying to sell these 
economical meats to that woman and others of her class." 

It is interesting to note that many intelligent communi- 
ties without the aid of science, by sheer instinct apparently, 
have solved the problem of really economical food. The 
Scotchmen have attained both physical and mental vigor on 
oatmeal, herring, and potatoes, a diet both economical and 
nutritious. And who will say that the high thinking of the 
golden age of New England had not an origin in the plain 
living, represented by their typical food, bread and milk, 
codfish and potatoes, pork and beans. 

The following paragraphs are from "Food and Diet," 
Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture, 1894, by 
W. 0. Atwater, Ph.D., one of his several publications that 
ought to be in the hands of every teacher, or family head : 

"One of the ways in which the worst economy is prac- 
tised is in the buying of high-priced foods. For this error, 
prejudice, the palate, and poor cooking are mainly respon- 



FOODS 127 

sible. There is a prevalent but unfounded idea that costly 
foods, such as the tenderest meats, the finest fish, the 
highest-priced butter, the choicest flour, and the most 
delicate vegetables possess some peculiar virtue which is 
lacking in less expensive materials. Many people who 
have small incomes and really wish to economize, think 
it beneath them to use the cheaper meats and inexpensive, 
but substantial groceries. Many, too, labor under the false 
impression that the costly food materials are somehow 
essential and economical. The maxim that ' the best is the 
cheapest/ does not apply to food. The ' best J food, in the 
sense of that which is finest in appearance and flavor and 
is sold at the highest price, is rarely the most economical 
for people in good health. The food that is best fitted to 
the real wants of the user may be of the very kind which 
supplies the most nutriment at the lowest cost. 

u . . . What is here urged is that the facts are not under- 
stood, and that the ignorance results in great waste of hard- 
earned money. If a man has an income of $ 5000 a year, 
he can afford a tenderloin steak, oysters at fifty cents a 
quart, and a young chicken, and the early strawberries at 
the high prices that prevail when they first come into the 
market. He can likewise, if he wishes, pay $ 100 for 
an overcoat, and his wife may indulge in twenty-dollar 
bonnets. But if his yearly income is only $1000, these 
luxuries will be beyond his means, and if he has but $500 
a year for the support of his family, such extravagance 
would be unpardonable. So far as the overcoat and bonnet 
are concerned, every one would agree to this statement ; but 
when it comes to a matter of food economy, a great many 
people of small incomes would object to the principle rnost 
decidedly. 

The larger part of the price of costlier foods is paid for 
appearance, flavor, or rarity. The sirloin of beef is no more 



128 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

digestible or nutritious than round or rib, although it is 
more tender, and to cook it so as to get the finest flavor 
is an easier matter. Saddle Rock oysters, fresh from the 
shell, at 50 cents a quart, are worth no more for nutriment 
than those that are sold in the same market at half the 
price ; and a quart of milk contains as much nutriment and 
in fully as digestible form as either. Salmon has no higher 
food value in the first of the season at $1 than later at 25 
cents a pound, and at either time it ranks as food, just 
about on a level with mackerel, which is often sold at 10 
cents per pound, or less. The expensive food materials are 
like the expensive articles of adornment. They are very 
nice if one can afford them, but they are not economical. 
The plain, substantial, standard food materials, like the 
cheaper meats and fish, milk, flour, corn meal, oatmeal, 
beans, and potatoes, are as digestible and nutritious, and 
as well fitted for the nourishment of people in good health 
as any of the costlier materials the markets afford. 

A favorite dish in France is a soup or stew with a 
large quantity of peas, beans, or lentils. What nutrients 
does it contain ? In about what proportions ? Would it 
do for a single dish ? Why ? Is it economical ? Why ? 

Ask the same question about the national dish of Italy, 
viz., wheat, macaroni, and polenta (corn meal) cooked 
with cheese made from skim milk ; about the Indian and 
Chinese food of rice combined with peas and beans ; about 
the miso the Japanese composed of rice and fermented 
barley, with beans or peas; about the Creole dish of rice 
and red beans ; and corn meal, bacon, and molasses of our 
Southern negroes. 

Hffethod. — Much the same method may be pursued in the 
study of this section as has been already suggested for the 
previous section. 

Use first Chart II, asking such questions as will lead them 



DRINKS 129 

to see at a glance the relative economy of the different 
foods. Then give them the table and let them work out 
problems such as these : — 

(1) From the articles given in this table, select a bill 
of fare for three meals. Compute the cost and the food 
value of each. If the dietary first proposed is one-sided, 
make it right, and again compute the cost. 

(2) Substitute equally nutritious but cheaper foods. 
Again compute the cost. Is the first bill of fare worth 
the additional cost ? 

(3) Suppose that a man was compelled to eat pork and 
beans for half his entire diet, how many pounds of beans 
must he eat for the requisite amcant of proteid? How 
much carbohydrate does this quantity yield ? How much 
pork must be added to make the food value nearly perfect ? 



DRINKS 

Tea 

Food Value. — Tea is of variable compositions. Its most 
important constituent is tlieine, which makes from one to 
four per cent. With this is combined tannin (sixteen to 
twenty-seven per cent). Its other constituents are caseine, 
gum, sugar, starch, oil, vegetable fibre, and an aromatic oil, 
to which its flavor is due. It has been estimated that a pot 
of tea as ordinarily made does not contain more than a 
grain of nitrogen, so that as a food it has practically no 
value. But properly made, and drunk in small quantities, 
it is a harmless stimulant, and, therefore, an aid to diges- 
tion. This does not mean that it is a suitable drink for the 
young. It is, in fact, very unsuitable, like every other 
stimulant, because of its effect on the development of the 
nervous system. It is useful to elderly people, and those 



130 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

with a delicate stomach incapable of digesting much food, 
for it prevents a waste of tissue, thus enabling the drinker 
to get along with less food. But it must be remembered 
that it does not take the place of food, and that, used in 
excess, it is undoubtedly a poison. 

Physiological Effects. — Tea markedly increases respira- 
tion. For this reason it aids in the assimilation of food 
by supplying to the body a greater quantity of oxygen. As 
a nerve stimulant it must excite somewhat the digestive 
juices, but on the whole its chief value is its aid to assimila- 
tion. For this reason it should be drunk after eating rather 
than before, or during a hearty meal. 

Its action on the skin is very noticeable, causing per- 
spiration. For this reason it is very cooling. In popular 
parlance it is "the cup that cheers," and undoubtedly it has 
a refreshing influence on the mind. As the Chinese say, 
" It tends to clear away impurities, to drive off drowsiness, 
and to remove or prevent headache." 

Customs of Drinking. — Tea is drunk clear in China and 
Japan, and with a few drops of lemon in Russia. In Tar- 
tary and on the coast of South America, the used leaves are 
passed around and eaten with relish. These contain about 
twenty per cent of nitrogenous matter, so that the custom 
can certainly be defended on the score of economy. 

Natural History. — Tea is the dried leaves of a plant 
belonging to the same family as our camellia. It is now 
a shrub, but a wild variety, supposed by some to represent 
the original stock, attains the size of a large tree. It is 
one of the hardiest of subtropical plants, and will grow 
over a wide area of country. The conditions best suited to 
it are the slopes of mountains in tropical or subtropical 
countries. These give it the warm, moist, equable climate 
with good root drainage under which it thrives best. 

It is grown from seed. As soon as the plants are four or 



DRINKS 131 

five inches high they are transplanted to the plantation. The 
rows of plants are five feet apart, so that the pickers can walk 
easily between them. If the situation is exposed, the plant 
is kept low, that it may not be injured by the storm and 
wind, but in sheltered positions it is allowed to reach a 
height of six feet or more. When the slope of the ground 
does not shelter it, it is usual to plant near by quick-growing 
trees to break the force of the wind. 

For three years it is allowed to grow undisturbed except 
for needed pruning, and even then care is taken not to strip 
it, for the leaves are the main organs of this as well as 
other plants. 

Preparation for the Market. — The leaves are picked three 
times a year. Those gathered first, in April, are considered 
the choicest, for they contain a larger proportion of juice in 
relation to the solid, and are moreover much more pliable. 
A large portion of this crop is kept in its habitat for the 
use of the wealthy ; but some of it finds its way in small 
quantities on the backs of horses or caravans to Russia, and 
of late years a little of it is sold in the markets of Great 
Britain and the United States. 

Women and children are employed in gathering the 
leaves. It is worthy of note that the fresh leaves have 
neither odor nor flavor. These leaves are then dried in the 
sun and trodden out by barefoot men, in order to break 
the fibres and dry them better. Then they are heaped up 
and heated for some hours, or until they are reddish brown 
in color. They are then rolled up by hand. This is to 
start up fermentation, which, however, is soon checked 
by exposing them to the heat of the sun, or else baking 
them over a charcoal fire. In all this heating they are 
carefully stirred to prevent scorching. 

In this state they are bought by the merchants, who 
in turn sort them so that leaves of the same size and age 



132 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

shall be together. Stems and damaged leaves are removed. 
Then they are thoroughly dried over a slow fire and are 
shipped to Europe and America. 

It is said that the Chinese will not drink tea until it 
is a year old, but since its flavor depends on a volatile oil, 
it is evident that new tea must be better than old. More- 
over, the longer that the tea is packed in the close hold 
of a vessel, the more likely it will be to ferment. There- 
fore, exceptionally fast vessels have been built for the 
tea trade in England, and there is always a great strife 
to be the first ship to bring the new cargo in. 

Kinds of Tea. — Tea may be roughly divided into green, 
black, and scented. 

The process of preparing black tea has been already 
given in detail. Green tea is not dried in the sun, but with 
artificial heat. It is because of this rapid drying that it 
retains its natural green color. 

Scented tea is always of mediocre quality. Its odor is 
due to its being mixed with the aromatic leaves of other 
plants. 

History. — The word tea is of Chinese origin. This is 
due to the fact that it was first cultivated in China. When 
it was first imported into England (1665) it was sold at the 
rate of $15 a pound. Excellent quality can now be bought 
for fifty cents a pound. 

Its cultivation has spread into India, Ceylon, Japan, 
Korea. Its cultivation in other countries has not been 
particularly successful, for cheap labor is as essential to 
successful tea-growing, as favorable climate, soil, and 
situation. It will be observed that the great part of its 
manufacture is carried on by hand. 

Substitutes for Tea. — Substitutes for tea have been used 
in almost every country. Appalachian tea, New Jersey 
tea, Mountain tea, Labrador tea, Oswego, are the names of 



DRINKS 133 

some of the teas prepared from native plants, some of them 
used by the Indians, and many of them, doubtless, by the 
colonists during the memorable times of the tea tax. Mate 
tea, made from the leaves of the Brazilian holly, is much 
used in South American countries. It is prepared similarly 
to Chinese tea, and is cooked in much the same way. The 
natives flavor it with lemon and burnt sugar, and suck it 
through a straw. It is a slight narcotic, resembling coffee 
rather than tea leaves: It is very cheap, and is therefore 
drunk in large quantities. 

Preparation for the Table. — In preparing tea for the table, 
the aim should be to extract all the aroma and the theine 
with the least possible admixture of tannin. This is 
accomplished by pouring over the tea freshly boiled water, 
letting it infuse for at least five minutes. Longer infusion 
depends upon the taste of the drinker for tannin. 

The Chinese directions with regard to water and fire 
were as follows : — 

" Take the water from a running stream ; that from hill 
springs is best, river water is the next, and well water is 
the worst. The fire must be lively and clear, but the water 
must not be boiled too hastily. At first it begins to 
sparkle like crabs' eyes, then somewhat like fishes' eyes, 
and, lastly, it boils up like pearls innumerable, springing 
and waving about." 

Method. — Distribute to each student a small quantity of 
tea. Ask them what it is and why they think so. Let 
each pour boiling water on her tea and watch the result. 
What is tea, then? Give them some account of the tea 
plant, its culture and manufacture. 

Let them taste the water in which the leaves have been 
standing. Let them boil it for five or ten minutes and 
taste again. What is the difference in the taste ? To 
what is the flavor due in the first instance ? In the 



134 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

second ? For what other purpose is tannin used ? (Tanning 
leather.) How then, should tea be made ? 

What is its food value ? 

What is its effect on the nervous system ? By whom, 
then, should it not be drunk ? What are its advantages ? 

Exhibit samples of various teas, — letting the pupils 
arrange these according to their commercial value. 

Recipes for Pupils 

A Cup of Tea. — Pour boiling water in the teapot ; when 
the pot has become thoroughly heated, empty it. Put one 
teaspoon of tea into the hot pot, and pour one cup of 
freshly boiled water on it. Let it steep five minutes and 
then serve. If too strong, dilute with boiling water. If 
the tea has to stand, pour off the tea from the leaves. 
Serve plain with a sweet cake, as do the Chinese and 
Japanese ; or with cut sugar and slices of lemon, Russian 
fashion ; or in the ordinary way, with cream and sugar. 

A Cup of Tea (second method). — Pour a cup of cold water 
over a heaping teaspoonful of tea. Let it stand all day in 
the refrigerator. Pour off the liquid, heat, and serve as 
desired. 

Tea made in this way is much to be preferred to any 
other for iced tea. 

Coffee 

Food Value. — Eoasted coffee contains about one per cent 
of caffeine (a principle analogous to theine) ; about thirteen 
per cent of peculiar aromatic compounds, developed in the 
roasting from the oils and fats of the green berry ; about 
six or seven per cent of sugar (caramel). Caffeic acid, in 
its physiological effect similar to tannin, is present in small 
quantities (three to five per cent). It contains, also, not far 
from thirteen per cent of proteicls, a small quantity of min- 



DRINKS 135 

eral matter, and about sixty-nine per cent of burnt cellulose. 
The berry itself, then, is more nutritious than the leaves of 
the tea; but the infusion which is usually drunk is a stimu- 
lant, rather than a food. 

Natural History. — Coffee is the seed of a berry of a tree 
which, wild, attains a height of twenty to thirty feet. In 
cultivation, however, it ranges from three to six feet, thus 
making it possible to gather the abundant fruit with ease. 

It belongs to the same family as the Peruvian bark from 
which quinine is made. 

It is an evergreen, with numerous beautiful jessamine- 
like white flowers. These bloom for eight months of the 
year, producing a succession of crops of fruit. 

Coffee, like tea, needs a warm, moist climate, rich soil, and 
protection from winds and storms. The original home of 
Mocha coffee has the finest climate in the world for coffee 
culture. All the year round a thick mist ascends from the 
coast to the slopes on which the coffee is growing. At 
the time of the greatest heat, midday, this mist protects the 
plants from it; and at night the hot air ascending from 
the plains keeps the temperature marvellously equable. It 
is a natural, self-regulating hothouse. 

Preparation for Market. — During the height of the season, 
each coolie is expected to bring a bushel of berries to the 
pulping mill at midday and again in the evening. This 
fruit resembles in color and texture a small cherry, but 
instead of one stone it contains two seeds. These seeds are 
enveloped in a thick leathery skin called parchment. After 
the berries have been pulped by machinery they are cured 
by exposing them to the sun for six or eight days. Great 
care is needed, because they are now extremely sensitive to 
rain or dew. When thoroughly dried, they are sent to the 
coffee works in bushel bags. Here they are placed in circular 
troughs and subjected to the pressure of heavy rollers, which 



136 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

break the parchment but do not crush the berry. This outer 
covering is fanned away and the berries sized. This is 
necessary on account of the roasting. A small bean would 
be burned to charcoal before a larger one was thoroughly 
roasted. The smallest berries, no matter where grown, 
receive the trade name of Mocha and command the high- 
est price. Nineteen-twentieths of the Mochas and Javas of 
commerce come from Brazil, and it is many years since real 
Mocha has reached Europe or the United States. 

It sometimes happens that instead of two flat seeds, the 
berry will have one round one. These are carefully sorted 
out and sold in market under the name of male berry or pea 
berry coffee. It is supposed to have a finer flavor than the 
common varieties, and for that reason commands a higher 
price. 

History. — The legend of its discovery is quite interesting. 
It is said that a poor Arabian dervish noticed evening after 
evening that his goats returned home in remarkably happy 
humor. He watched them closely to find out if he could 
the cause of their joy fulness, and discovered that they ate 
eagerly the leaves and flowers of a beautiful unknown tree. 
He tried the effects of these on himself. He was so exhila- 
rated that his neighbors accused him of drinking wine, for- 
bidden to them ; but when he told them of his discovery, 
they agreed with him at once that it was a plant sent by 
Allah as a substitute for the forbidden wine. 

The Mahometans used it to keep themselves from going to 
sleep during their long hours of prayer. For this reason its 
use was opposed by many of the priests, who tried in vain to 
have it brought under the prohibition of the Koran which 
was directed against intoxicating drinks. 

Physiological Effects. — Coffee, unlike tea, decreases the 
action of the skin, and is not, therefore, accompanied by the 
free perspiration so characteristic of tea. It increases res- 



DRINKS 137 

piration, the action of the heart, and excites the mucous 
membranes. This in addition to its slightly greater food 
value makes it better fitted for the feeble than tea. Because 
the skin is most active and the heart most feeble in the 
morning, it is preeminently a breakfast drink. It is not 
so good after dinner, and if taken then should be drunk 
soon after the meal. 

Adulterations. — Unground coffee is not easily adulter- 
ated; but ground coffee is very frequently mixed with 
ground chicory, dandelion or carrot roots, or ground peas 
and beans. 

To detect these adulterations put a few grains of the 
suspected coffee on the surface of water in a glass tumbler. 
If chicory is present, it will be surrounded by a yellow 
brown cloud which will soon color the whole tumbler of 
water. 

Caramel colors the water much more deeply, and dande- 
lion root or rasped bread less deeply. Beans and peas, on 
the contrary, color the water much less deeply than pure 
coffee even, so that the color scale increases in intensity in 
the following order : Peas or beans, rasped bread or dande- 
lion, coffee, chicory, caramel. Dandelion root may be 
detected by tasting it, and bread, of course, will soften in 
the mouth. 

Pure coffee will not color cold water in less than fifteen 
minutes. 

Preparation for the Table. — The most economical way to 
buy coffee is raw. It must be kept dry, but it improves 
with age. 

To roast it, use quick heat. This develops the flavor 
and makes it brittle. It may be ground in a coffee-mill or 
pounded in a mortar to the required fineness. 

In cooking it the point is to make an infusion which will 
contain the essential oils and the caffeine. This may be 



138 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

accomplished by letting it stand for some hours in cold 
water, bringing it to a boil just before using it. Although 
this is the most economical way, boiling it and filtering it 
are the more usual methods. 

Method. — Procure from any grocer samples of the dif- 
ferent coffees raw, roasted, and ground. Coffee in the 
"parchment" and even in the pulp may sometimes be 
procured from wholesale grocers who keep them as curi- 
osities and are willing to loan or give them away. Pictures 
of the tree and of the various stages of manufacture are 
easily found, and with small classes add to the interest of 
the lesson. 

With this material develop so much of the natural 
history, manufacture, and history of coffee as you deem 
expedient. 

Teach its physiological effects. 

Ask them to find out the market price per pound of 
Mocha, Java, Mexican, Maracaibo, Bogota, Jamaica, Eio 
and other common commercial varieties. Is it costly enough 
to warrant adulteration ? 

Let them test pure coffee as suggested above. Give them 
experience in testing the various adulterants. This is most 
safely done by giving them coffee that you have yourself 
adulterated. Here again the friendly wholesale grocer will 
prove invaluable. 

Let them make coffee in the various ways suggested. 
Calculate the cost per cup in each case, and carefully note 
the difference in flavor. 



Recipes 

Infused Coffee. — To one tablespoon of finely ground coffee, 
in a covered earthenware jar, add a cup of cold water. Stir 
until all the coffee has been wet. Cover and let it stand for 



DRINKS 139 

several hours. Just before it is needed for use, bring it 
gradually to a boil. 

Boiled Coffee. — Have the coffee ground medium fine. 
Rinse the coffee-pot, and allow one heaping tablespoon of 
ground coffee to each cup of boiling water. Stir well to- 
gether and pour on the boiling water; let the coffee boil 
two minutes. Set the pot back on the range, where it 
will not boil, but keep below the boiling point for ten 
minutes. Pour a little off into a cup and then back again ; 
do this twice, and then pour one tablespoon of cold water 
down the spout to perfect the settling and clearing. It will 
then be ready for the table in ten minutes. 

Egg is not essential to clear coffee, and the common 
practice of putting in dirty egg-shells cannot be too 
strongly condemned. 

Filtered Coffee. — Coffee to be filtered must be ground very 
fine. 

Use one heaping tablespoon of coffee to each cup of 
boiling water. Put the coffee in the strainer and pour 
the boiling water in it ; as it drips, keep adding water until 
the desired quantity has been added. This coffee must not 
be allowed to boil, but is ready for the table as soon as 
filtered. Have the coffee-pot hot, and keep it hot during 
filtration. 

The simplest form of a strainer to hold the coffee is a 
flannel or cheese-cloth sack suspended in the pot. For 
the individual recipe a strainer in which is put filter paper 
will answer every purpose. 

Cocoa 

Food Value. — The cacao bean contains fifty per cent of 
fat, thirteen of proteids, seven of a tannin-like principle, 
four of starch, and about one per cent of theobromine, a 
principle allied to theine and caffeine. Chocolate is the 



140 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

whole bean, crushed and pulverized ; but about half of its 
fat is extracted in the manufacture of cocoa. Therefore, 
cooked in milk, as it usually is, cocoa is an excellent food, 
partaking rather of the nature of a nutritious soup than of 
a drink. 

Natural History. — The cacao bean of commerce is the 
seed of a fruit from six to ten inches in length, and contain- 
ing from twenty to thirty seeds. The color varies according 
to the degree of ripeness, from yellow to red, and at last 
purple. 

The tree succeeds best in a moist tropical climate. 

Preparation for Market. — The fruits are buried in damp 
earth with green leaves until they ferment. So much heat 
is developed during this process that the hand cannot be 
held in the heap even for an instant. Afterward the beans 
are dried in the sun, or else roasted by machinery. They 
are then crushed and broken up into small pieces, the cocoa- 
nibs of commerce. From these is made the chocolate and 
cocoa of commerce, the latter usually being freer from oil. 
The oil expressed from the nibs in the preparation of 
chocolate and cocoa is utilized in the making of cocoa 
butter, used in some places for cooking, although known 
to us on the fingers of the masseur. 

History. — When the Spaniards first lived in Mexico, they 
found the Mexicans drinking a decoction from the cacao bean, 
called by them chocolatl. It was speedily introduced by 
them into Europe, and was used there as a beverage before 
the introduction of either tea or coffee. In Spain it was 
soon regarded as almost a necessity, but has never been so 
highly esteemed in other countries. Nevertheless, the great 
botanist, Linnaeus, was so fond of it that he named the tree 
from which it grew theobroma, — food of the gods. 

Adulteration. — Cocoa is quite commonly adulterated with 
starch. This may be easily detected under the microscope 



DRINKS 141 

by those who are familiar with the peculiar appearance of 
starch granules. 

Preparation for the Table. — Unlike tea, or even coffee, 
cocoa must be boiled to be agreeable. The infusion of 
cocoa made by steeping without boiling is bitter and un- 
nutritious. 

Method. — From wholesale grocers may be obtained easily 
all stages in the manufacture of chocolate except the tree 
and fruit itself. Supply this lack with pictures. With 
the aid of these develop the natural history of the plant 
and its preparation for market. 

Teach its food value. 

Becipes 

A Cup of Chocolate. — Break into small pieces one bar 
of Maillard's chocolate. Add this to a cup of cold milk in 
the double boiler. Place it on the stove and stir constantly 
with a wooden spoon until the chocolate is dissolved. Let 
the milk boil for an instant. It should be beaten and 
served with whipped cream. 

If Baker's chocolate is used, shave down a square and 
dissolve it first in a little cold water. 

A Cup of Cocoa. — Dissolve a teaspoonful of cocoa in a 
little cold water. To this add a cupful of boiling milk 
and let it boil for a minute, stirring vigorously all the 
time. 



CHAPTER VI 

ADVANCED COURSE : THE PROTEIDS, AND HOW 
TO COOK THEM 



For Fish, see Chapter VIII. 

Many of the recipes in this chapter were contributed by Mrs. Ada 
Byron Fink, in charge of the lunchroom of the Philadelphia Normal 
School. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Works recommended in Chapters IV, V, VII, and VIII. 

Facts. — These have been given in chapters on Foods and 
on Principles of Cooking. 

The proteids are especially abundant in eggs, milk, meats, 
fish, and the leguminous vegetables. 

In addition to the facts to be found in the chapters on 
Foods, the following may be useful in the study of materials, 
preliminary to the cooking lessons. 



Germ from which the chick grows 




Skin lining 
the shell 



hell 



Twisted white cords 
which keep the yolk steady 

142 



Space formed between 
the shell and the skin 



PROTEIDS, AND HOW TO COOK THEM 143 

Eggs. — This drawing will make all the parts of the egg 
clear. It might be placed on the board when the students 
have thoroughly worked out the various facts demonstrated 
by it with the eggs themselves. Their average composition 
is as follows : — 

Per Cent 

Refuse (shell and skin) 13.7 

Water 63.1 

Protein 12.1 

Fat 10.2 

Mineral matter 00.9 

Calories (per pound) 655.0 

As will be seen from an inspection of Chart II, at twenty- 
five cents a dozen, they are expensive food. 

Milk has been already discussed with sufficient thorough- 
ness for the purpose. 

Meats are from the cow, calf, sheep, lamb, pig, birds. 

Beef. — The total amounts of nutrients, the calories, and 
the relative economy of the various cuts are as follows, the 
analyses having been made from cuts just as they are pur- 
chased in the markets (Atwater). 



144 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Beef 



Neck 

Chuck ribs . . . 

Ribs 

Brisket .... 
Cross ribs .... 

Shoulder .... 

Shin 

Plate 

Navel 

Sirloin 

Socket 

Rump 

Round, first cut . . 

Round, second cut . 

Leg 

Top of sirloin . . 

Flank 



Total 
Nutrients 
Per Cent 



30.4 
35.9 

40.8 

45.1 
49.2 

31.6 

15.7 

45.7 
46.4 

32.2 

27.5 
45.5 

31.5 

20.7 

10.5 
55.9 

64.2 



Calories 



880 
1125 

1405 

1580 
1765 

895 

310 
1600 
1610 

970 

880 

1570 

855 

505 

235 
2025 

2435 



Cost per Lb. 



cents 

! 8 

l 6 
J 16 

112 
f22 
1 18 



14 
10 



{ 



22 
18 



|18 
115 
J 18 
1 15 
MO 
I 8 



15 

10 



Amount 

of 
Nutrients 
for 25 cts. 



0.95 
1.27 
0.56 
0.75 
0.47 
0.57 



0.57 
0.79 



0.37 
0.45 

0.63 
0.76 
0.44 
0.52 
0.52 
0.65 



0.74 
1.11 



From this table it is evident that of the usual cuts one 
gets the most for one's money in the neck and in the flank, 
next in the shoulder, then in the rump, chuck rib, second 
cut of the round, ribs, first cut of round, and last the sirloin. 



PKOTEIDS, AND HOW TO COOK THEM 



145 



Veal. — The flesh of veal should be firm, and its color 
pink. The bones, too, must be hard. u Bob " veal, as it is 
called, may be easily recognized by its flabby flesh of a blue 
tinge. It has been killed too young and is very unwhole- 
some. 

The shoulder alone contains 24.8 per cent of nutrients 
and 570 calories; the shoulder and fore shank together 
contain 26 per cent of nutrients and 715 calories. 

Mutton. — The neck is used for stewing, the shoulder 
roasted, the leg boiled or roasted, the saddle roasted, and 
the chops broiled. 





Per Cent of 






Amount 

of 
Nutrients 
for 25cts. 


Cuts of Mutton 


Total 

Nutrients 


Calories 


Cost per Lb. 








cents 




Shoulder 


34.7 


1075 


T20 
1 15 


0.44 

0.58 


Neck 


32.1 


1055 


— 


— 


Hock 


36.4 


1160 


— 


— 


Leg 


31.3 


935 


|25 
120 


0.31 
0.39 


Loin 


42.7 


1480 


— 


— 


Flank 


60.0 


2145 


— 


— 



This table shows the total amount of nutrients, the 
calories, and the relative economies of the various cuts 
(Atwater). As in the previous table, the last column is of 
particular interest. 

Lamb. — The meat is at its best when it is two months 
old. It is sold by the quarter. The hind quarter is the 
most expensive, but the fore quarter contains a larger per 
cent of nutrient and more calories. 



146 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Pork, 



Pork 



Shoulder roast . 
Ham smoked . . 



Sausage 



Total 






Nutrients 


Calories 


Cost per Lb. 


Per Cent 










cents 


42.4 


1435 


— 


51.8 


1735 


ri6 

1 12 


58.8 


2065 


J 16 

1 12 



Amount 

of 
Nutrients 
for 25 cts. 



0.81 
1.08 
1.46 

1.83 



This table, like the others, is taken from Atwater, and is 
based on cuts as bought in the market. 

Poultry. — Turkeys contain more nutrients than chickens. 

The legumens, beans, peas, etc., contain the greatest 
amount of protein and at the least cost, as will be seen 
on consulting Charts I and II in the chapter on Foods. 
On the other hand, the protein contained in them is less 
digestible. 

Keview Boiling. See chapter on Principles of Cooking. 

Practice. 

Eggs 

What is the composition of the white of an egg ? Of the 
yolk ? What effect will long continued boiling temperature 
have upon yeast ? What- disadvantage will this be in the 
ultimate cooking? What will be the effect of too great 
heat ? Too little ? What is the optimum temperature for 
boiling an egg? What two ways may this be obtained? 

Write a recipe for boiling an egg. 

Boiled Egg. — I. Place an egg in a saucepan. Cover with 
cold water, bring the water slowly to the boiling point, 
letting it boil a few seconds. 



PKOTEIDS, AND HOW TO COOK THEM 147 

II. Cover an egg, first with warm water, and then with 
boiling water. Let the water, cooled by the addition of the 
egg, again come to a boil. Cover, and remove the saucepan 
from the fire. In five minutes the egg will be sufficiently 
cooked. 

Poached Egg. — In a saucepan, put a muffin ring. Cover it 
with boiling water. Add a pinch of salt. (Why ?) Into this 
ring carefully drop an egg. If the yolk breaks, reject it. At 
once set the pan to one side, and let the egg cook until the 
yolk has set and the white is translucent and a firm jelly. 
This will be in about fifteen minutes. In the meantime 
get ready pieces of toast somewhat larger than the rings. 
Moisten the crust with hot water, spread with butter. Lift 
and drain the eggs carefully with a skimmer, placing them 
on the square of toast. Kemove the ring and garnish with 
a bit of green. 

Mutton 

From what animal is mutton obtained ? What parts of 
the sheep are cooked ? How ? Should it be well done or 
rare ? What sauce is served with it ? What vegetables 
may be boiled with it ? Which will take the longer to 
cook? At what temperature is albumen coagulated? 
What objection to immersing the leg of mutton at once 
in water 165° F? What should we do? Why? Write 
recipes. 

Recipe for Boiled Mutton. — The fat of mutton is apt to be 
strong. Therefore trim off a part of it. Put the leg in 
enough boiling water to cover it. Let it boil fifteen min- 
utes. Put the pot to one side and let it simmer for a length 
of time depending upon the size, allowing fifteen minutes 
to the pound. Half an hour before it is time to take off 
the meat, add a carrot and a turnip, cutting each into thick 
slices. In the meantime make ready chopped parsley or 



148 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

capers and a white sauce (see white sauce in Starchy Foods, 
and egg sauce in chapter on Fish). Put the mutton on a 
warm dish, smear it evenly and smoothly with white sauce, 
and sprinkle over it the chopped parsley. Garnish with the 
vegetables and serve with caper sauce. 

Shall we throw away the water ? Why not ? What does 
it contain besides the extraction of the meat ? What can we 
do with it ? 

For an individual recipe for boiled mutton, give the chil- 
dren each a small chunky piece, and cook as indicated in 
the full recipe given above, using the individual white sauce 
given in the chapter on Starchy Foods. Care should be 
taken to see that the meat is always just covered with water 
and no more. 

Recipe for an Economical Soup. — Add to such water the 
left overs that have been accumulating in the stock pot, viz., 
bones (these must be broken up), gravy, spoonfuls of vege- 
tables, pieces of meat. Let this compound simmer for five 
or six hours. Strain into a bowl and leave uncovered to 
cool. Kemove the grease, and use as stock with rice or 
vegetables for soup. 

Recipe for Floating Island Q-). — Put in a double boiler one 
cup of milk. Scald, but do not boil. Take it from the fire, 
adding it slowly, stirring all the time, to the slightly beaten 
yolk of two eggs, to which a tablespoonf ul sugar and quarter 
of a saltspoon of salt have been added. Eeplace on the fire, 
stirring constantly until it is smooth and creamy. If it be- 
gins to grain, put the pan in cold water and beat vigorously 
with a Dover egg-beater. Eeturn to the fire. When it 
coats the spoon, strain it into two cold cups and add ten 
drops of vanilla. 

Beat to a stiff froth the white of the egg, divide it be- 
tween the two custards, and set in the oven for a moment to 
brown. 



PROTEIDS, AND HOW TO COOK TITEM 149 

Why is a custard cooked in a double boiler ? What does 
the graining mean ? Why is it plunged into cold water ? 
What is the philosophy of beating it ? 

The proportions for a full recipe for custards are as 
follows : 5 to 8 eggs ; 1 quart milk ; 1 saltspoon of salt ; 1 
teaspoonful vanilla. 

Steaming or Braizing. — Instead of surrounding the food 
material with water, steam may be the cooking medium. 
It is an excellent way to cook the less expensive cuts, as, for 
example, the under side of the round, and depends for its 
success on long, slow cooking. 

Recipe. — Mix J cup each of diced salt pork, carrot, tur- 
nip, onion, and celery together. Spread all except a half 
cupful in the bottom of a baking pan. On this bed of vege- 
tables place a chunky three-pound piece of beef from either 
the upper or the lower round. Dredge it with flour. Place 
it in a hot oven to sear the outside. This will take from 20 
to 25 minutes. Now add two cupf uls of water, a bunch of 
pot-herbs, and half a teaspoonful of salt. Spread the half 
cupful of vegetables over the meat. Cover it closely with 
another pan. Shut off the drafts and let it cook very 
' slowly from four to five hours. The sauce already formed 
in the pan needs only to be strained and seasoned with salt 
and pepper. Serve with or without the vegetables. 

Practice. — Eeview Stewing. 

Old Fashioned Lamb Stew (|). — Take one pound of neck 
meat of a yearling. This is very rich meat, but the pres- 
ence of the vertebrae makes it difficult to manipulate. It 
should be sawn through, not chopped, but it is usually nec- 
essary first to educate the butcher to this and other niceties. 
(Why is it necessary to cut it into small pieces ?) Add an 
onion cut in pieces, and enough cold water to cover the 



150 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

meat. Cover closely ; bring it to the simmering point and 
let it simmer for a couple of hours. (Why was cold water 
added? Why is it kept at simmering instead of boiling 
temperature ?) With so small a quantity of meat it will be 
necessary to watch it and add water as may be necessary. 
Now add to the meat ^ the quantity of halved potatoes, a 
few slices of carrots, and salt and pepper to taste. Re- 
cover, and let it boil another hour. (Why were not the 
vegetables added in the beginning ?) 

Many people saute the meat used in the stews. This is 
a poor method. Not only is it more trouble, but it certainly 
gives both a less digestible meat and less flavoring broth. 

Fricasseed Chicken. — The chicken need not be young. It 
must be drawn at once. 

To Draw a Chicken. — Remove the pin feathers, and then 
singe the chicken. Use lighted paper or alcohol. Every 
part of the fowl must be exposed to the flame. This may 
be most easily done by holding it by the head and feet and 
turning it constantly. 

Wash the outside of the chicken thoroughly with plenty 
of water and a cloth. The skin should be scraped with a 
dull knife, for it is full of dirt from exposure and handling. 

Cut off the head, cut the skin down the back of the neck 
and turn it over. Remove carefully the crop and windpipe. 
Now cut off the neck close to the body, folding the skin over 
the opening. The neck should be saved for the stew. 

Bend the leg back slightly and cut the skin on the joint. 
This will expose the tendons. Run a fork under them and 
draw them out. Break off the leg at the joint with the ten- 
dons hanging to it. Save these for the stock pot. 

Cut a small opening under the rump, anterior to the vent. 
With the finger loosen the viscera from the body. Repeat 
this process in the neck opening. Cut a circle around the 
vent. Now draw out the viscera in one mass without break- 



PROTEIDS, AND HOW TO COOK THEM 151 

ing any portion of it. If either the gall or the intestine 
should be broken, wash it out at once. In any event the in- 
terior must be wiped out with wet cloth. Cut the gall from 
the liver ; cut open the gizzard, removing the inner sack en- 
tire ; open the heart and wash away the blood clot. 

On the back of the rump will be found the oil sack which 
keeps the feathers in good condition. As it is rather strong 
in flavor, cut it away. 

In teaching the children how to draw a chicken, lead 
them to reason out each step in the work. For example, 
show them the chicken. What should be removed ? 
How ? Scrape the skin with a dull knife, showing them 
the dirt. What shall we do next ? How ? 

What organs are within the body of the chicken ? Will 
it do to let these remain? Why not? Show them a 
dissected fowl, or a diagram of one. Where will it be 
easiest to withdraw the crop and windpipe ? The other 
organs ? How shall we do this ? 

Examine the viscera. Which parts are used in cooking ? 
How shall we prepare each ? Why ? What does the gall 
contain ? What is its function in digestion ? Cut open 
the inner sack of the gizzard. What does it contain ? 
Why? Why do birds have gizzards? (Examine the 
mouth and consider the food for the answer to this 
question.) 

What is the protuberance on the upper side of the 
rump ? What is its function ? Shall we remove it ? 
Why? 

Write directions for cleaning and drawing a fowl, illus- 
trating it with diagram. 

Recipe. — Cut off the two drumsticks, the two second 
joints, the two wings, two pieces of breast. Divide the 
back into three pieces. Cover with cold water and bring 
slowly to a boil. Set it back where it will simmer. Add to 



152 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

it a few slices of salt pork and a buncli of pot-herbs. 
Cover, and let it simmer until quite tender. The time 
depends upon the age of the chicken. 

Put the pieces on a warm dish, arranging them neatly. 
Strain the water in which it was cooked, removing all 
grease. Use a cupful of this to make a white sauce (see 
chapter on Starchy Foods). If care has been taken not to 
add more water than will cover the meat, there will not be 
much more than enough fluid. If there is, evaporate it 
quickly to the required amount. 

Veal Pot-pie. — Use the method and recipe given for a 
lamb stew. 

Cook the dumplings in a separate pot with plenty of 
water, or else in the same pot with the meat. In the latter 
case care must be taken that the water does not cease to 
bubble while they are in. 

Dumplings (\). — Mix together i cup flour, 1 saltspoonful 
of salt, and ± teaspoonful of baking powder. Stir in 
quickly -i- cupful of milk. Drop the soft dough from a 
spoon into boiling water. It will take ten minutes to cook 
them. They must be served as soon as they are taken from 
the pot. 

Eeview Extracting. 

Stock. — One recipe has already been given under boiling. 

Brown stock is made from beef, either alone or with 
other meats, and mixed vegetables. 

White stock is made either from veal or chicken, alone, 
or both together. It is seasoned with onion, celery, white 
pepper and salt. 

Soup meats are the lower round, the shin and the neck of 
beef, and the knuckle of veal. 

The proportions are a quart to a pound, and one vegeta- 
ble. The vegetables used are onions, carrots, turnips, and 



PROTEIDS, AND HOW TO COOK THEM 153 

celery. It is usual to make at one time from four to eight 
quarts, and add a bunch of pot-herbs to this quantity. 

These facts, plus a knowledge of the principles of ex- 
tracting, ought to enable any one to write a recipe. 

Stock. — Procure a four-pound piece of a shin of beef. 
This should be well broken by the butcher. Take off the 
lean meat and cut it into small pieces. Put all into a per- 
fectly clean pot which has been washed in soda and scoured 
clean. Add to the meat four quarts of cold water. Let it 
stand half an hour, and then bring it slowly to a boil. In 
the meantime, wash, scrape, and cut the vegetables (turnip, 
carrot, onion, stalk of celery) into small pieces. Add these 
to the pot, and set it where it can simmer for five or six 
hours. Add two teaspoonfuls of salt just before removing 
it from the stove. Strain it into an earthen bowl, and cool 
at once. When used, remove carefully the layer of grease ; 
salt and pepper it to taste. 

Prom this stock may be made macaroni, noodle, vermi- 
celli, vegetable, julienne, and tapioca, by adding to it just 
before serving the boiled vegetable indicated by the name. 
In julienne soup, the vegetables are in two-inch shreds. A 
knife comes for the purpose of cutting these. 

Keview Boasting. In roasting meat what is done with 
reference to the temperature, to prevent the escape of the 
juices ? Explain. Why may not this heat be continued 
during the whole cooking? Which requires the more 
intense heat at the beginning, a small, or a large roast? 
Why? How can you regulate the temperature of the 
oven ? Explain. 

Recipe. — Choose a rib roast, well streaked with fat, and 
bright red in color. Wipe it with a damp cloth. (What is 
the objection to washing it ?) Place it in the rack of the 
roasting pan. Dredge it with flour. (Why?) In the 



154 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

corner of the pan put two tablespoonfuls of drippings, half a 
teaspoonful of salt, and a saltspoonful of pepper. The salt, 
at least, must not touch the meat. (Why ?) Put it into a 
very hot oven until the surface is seared and brown (about 
twenty minutes). Lower the temperature of the oven by 
shutting off the drafts. Baste frequently with the liquid 
in the pan, to which a cup of water may be added. For 
rare meat, eight minutes to the pound will be usually 
sufficient. 

Good cooks often refuse to put water in the pan, saying 
that the steam from it keeps the roast from browning ; but 
the roast should be browned in the first heating. Adding 
hot fat continually to the surface makes it less indigestible, 
whereas the water lowers the temperature, allowing the 
meat within to cook slowly. 

Gravy. — Pour off all the fat from the pan. Add one cup 
of water. Season to taste, with salt and pepper. Mix one 
teaspoonful of flour with enough cold water to make a 
smooth paste. Brown it in the oven. Stir it into the 
boiling water. Let it boil for five minutes, stirring all the 
time. Strain, and serve in a hot dish. 

Baked Custards 

What are the ingredients of custard? What tempera- 
ture does milk require for boiling? What difference in 
the general temperature of the oven for baking a custard 
than from that required in roasting meat ? Is it necessary 
to have a preliminary high temperature ? Why not ? 
What precaution did we take against too great heat in 
cooking boiled custard ? How can we apply this principle 
in baked custards ? 

Recipe. — Use the same proportions and methods as in 
boiled custard. Turn the mixture into two cups. Grate a 
little nutmeg over the top. Set them in a dish of hot 



PROTEIDS, AND HOW TO COOK THEM 155 

water in a moderate oven. Cook until the centre is firm. 
This may be tested by running a knife into it. If it comes 
out clean, it is cooked enough. 

If it has been baked slowly, at a low temperature, it will 
be solid and smooth. If it is full of holes, then the 
temperature of the oven was too high. This converts the 
water into steam, which finally escapes, but leaves behind 
the holes made in its formation. 

Eeview Broiling. 

Recipe for Broiled Beefsteak. — If a tough cut is used, 
pound it before broiling, or else brush it on both sides 
with a mixture of one part vinegar and two parts oil, letting 
it stand at least two hours before cooking. The vinegar, 
held in check by the oil, partially dissolves the tough fibre. 

Cut off the superfluous fat and, if it is a sirloin or porter- 
house piece, remove the end. (Where shall we put the 
fat ? The end ?) Make the surface smooth by striking it 
with the broad side of the knife. 

The broiler must be very hot. Put a piece of the meat 
fat on the end of a fork and grease it well. Put the steak 
between the broiler, and near clear hot coals. Turn every 
ten seconds. When done, it will be puffed up between the 
wires. (Why ?) 

A steak an inch and a half thick will require about eight 
minutes of cooking. Sprinkle with salt and pepper, and 
spread with butter. Serve at once. 

Chops and steak, too, may be broiled in a frying pan, by 
removing all fat, putting them in a dry, red-hot pan, and 
turning with a skimmer, allowing them to cook more slowly 
when the outside is seared. 

Eeview Frying. 



156 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Croquettes 

These may be made from the chopped meat of chicken 
(white meat, or dark meat, or both together), of veal, of 
sweetbreads and mushrooms, of fish, of soup meat, etc. 

Individual Recipe. — To the white sauce (see chapter on 
Starchy Foods) add half a cupful of chopped meat, seasoned 
with saltspoonful of salt, same quantity of onion juice, a 
dash of pepper and a dash of nutmeg. Pour the mixture on 
a dish and set it aside for at least two hours. Then take 
half the mixture and roll it lightly into a ball. On the 
moulding board spread a plentiful supply of bread crumbs, 
spread evenly. Eoll the ball on these, into a cylinder, 
flattening the ends by dropping it lightly on the board. 

To \ the white of one egg, add a teaspoonful of water, 
stirring. Moisten the croquette thoroughly with this, using 
a spoon for the purpose. Lift it with the blade of the 
knife, and again roll it in the crumbs. See that every part 
is thoroughly covered. Set them aside for at least an hour 
before frying. 

They are now covered completely with a thin layer of 
albumen. This the heat will coagulate, and it will be 
impossible for the grease to soak in. 

To fry them, have ready a kettle of olive oil or cottolene. 
When it is smoking hot (why ?) put the croquettes on the 
basket, and immerse them completely. (Why ?) A long 
iron or wooden spoon, on which to hang the basket, 
will save the hand from being spattered with the burning 
fat. 

Let the croquettes stay in the oil only as long as is 
necessary to brown them. Eaise the basket and let them 
drain for a moment. Place them on brown paper in the 
open oven. 

If the moulding and frying have been done properly, they 



PROTEIDS, AND HOW TO COOK THEM 157 

will be so free from grease that they may be served in a 
white napkin. 

By saute is meant the usual form of frying in a shallow 
pan with a little fat. It is, for reasons given under Frying, 
in the chapter on Principles of Cooking the most objection- 
able way of cooking. 



JANUARY 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKING 

By L. L. W. WILSON, Ph.D., 
Of the Philadelphia Normal School 

ADVANCED COUESE : FISH, OYSTEBS, AND 

SALADS 

By ALICE HOOPER BECKLER, B.S., 

Formerly Instructor in Domestic Science, Pratt Institute ; 
now Teacher in Charge of the Zoological Laboratory, Philadelphia 

Normal School 

4 

Many of the recipes for this chapter have been specially prepared by 
Mrs. Ada Byron Fink, in charge of the lunchroom of the Philadelphia 
Normal School. 



CHAPTER VII 

PRINCIPLES OF COOKING 

By L. L. W. WILSON, Ph.D. 

Uncivilized man takes his nourishment like animals — as it is offered 
by Nature. Civilized man prepares his food before eating and in ways 
which are, in general, the more perfect the higher his culture. The art 
of cooking, when not allied with a degenerate taste or with gluttony, 
is one of the criteria of a people's civilization. — Konig. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, Mrs. Richards and Miss Elliott ; 
Chemistry of Cookery, W. M. Williams ; Science of Nutrition, Edward 
Atkinson ; Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking (Lamb Prize 
Essay), Mary Hinman Abel; Household Economics, Miss Parloa ; 
Meats, Composition and Cooking, Farmers' Bulletin No. 34 ; Chemis- 
try and Economy of Foods, Atwater, Bulletin No. 21, U.S. Department 
of Agriculture, price fifteen cents ; Curiosities of Literature, vol. 2, 
Disraeli; Essays of Elia, " Roast Pig" and " Grace Before Meat," 
Charles Lamb ; Nineteenth Century, vol. 32, p. 763 (Art of Cooking) ; 
Eclectic, vol. 120, p. 77 ; Quarterly, vol. 178, p. 82 ; Nation, vol. 24, 
p. 676 ; vol. 25, p. 776 ; Chautauquan, vol. 15, p. 622 (Elizabethan 
Cooking) ; vol. 17, p. 467 ; vol. 25, p. 51 (Principles of Cookery) ; 
Forum, vol. 15, p. 355 (Science of Cooking in the New England 
Kitchen) ; Littell's Living Age, vol. 155, p. 187 (History of Cooking) ; 
Atlantic Monthly, vol. 68, p. 215 (History of Cooking) ; Saturday 
Review, vol. 72, p. 522 (17th Century Cooking); Munsey, vol. 9. 
p. 326 (Renaissance of Cookery) ; North American Review, vol. 152, 
p. 461 (Humors of the Cook Book) ; Popular Science Monthly, vol. 
36, p. 1 (Art of Cooking, Atkinson) ; Galaxy, vol. 2, p. 215 ; vol. 4, 
p. 863 (Ancient and Modern Cooking) ; Blackwood, vol. 60, p. 238 
m 161 



162 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

(Cooking and Civilization) ; Lippincott, vol. 1, p. 91 (Cooking in 
History) ; American Kitchen Magazine, vol. 6, p. 51 (Evolution in 
Methods of Cooking and Heating). 

Facts. — Atkinson defines cooking as the art of applying 
heat to foods in such a way as 

(1) To render it digestible, so that its nutrient properties 
may be assimilated in true proportions in the human 
system. 

(2) To render it appetizing by the development of its own 
specific flavor. 

(3) To combine different kinds of food material in such a 
way that each will render the other palatable. 

(4) To remove certain portions which may not be pala- 
table or digestible after the first application of heat, either 
as waste, like bone, or as excess, like much of the fat that 
may be used for other purposes, or as woody fibre in many 
vegetables. 

(5) To add to the essential elements salt in its due pro- 
portion in almost every process, and sugar in some combi- 
nations, and other condiments, spices, or flavorings in such a 
way as to develop rather than disguise the true flavor of the 
principal food material entering into each dish. 

In addition to these five results of cooking may be given 
another and very important one, viz., the destruction of all 
parasites and bacteria. 

The effect of cooking of the starches is to break up the 
granules, bursting the enclosing sack. Cooking dissolves the 
connective tissue of meats and fish, thus making the muscle 
fibres more accessible to the digestive juices. Nevertheless, 
the cooked proteins, both meat and milk, take a longer time 
for digestion than the uncooked. A quantity of raw beef 
that will digest in two hours requires two and a half hours 
when boiled half done ; three hours, boiled well done ; three 



PEINCIPLES OF COOKING 163 

hours, roasted half done ; and four hours roasted well 
done. 

Boiling, steaming, stewing, extracting, roasting, broiling, 
frying, are the main methods employed in cooking. 

Effects of Heat. — To understand the relative merits and 
best way of using these various methods it is necessary to 
know the effects of different temperatures upon the food 
elements. Long continued high temperature together with 
more or less moisture is necessary for the cooking of all 
starchy foods. The amount of moisture and length of cook- 
ing depends upon whether the result is to be " mealy/' or a 
sweet nutty paste. For a temperature of 320° F. is required 
to change starch to dextrin, and a still higher temperature 
to change this product into sugar. 

For a fuller exposition of this subject, see the chapter on 
Starchy Foods, and How to Cook Them. 

Heat coagulates the proteids. This may be seen in the cook- 
ing of milk. The caseine (a proteid) thickens with heat, forms 
a layer across the top. The white of egg — almost pure al- 
bumen — coagulates at about 165° F. Additional heat first 
brings out the flavor (about 180° F.), and still greater heat 
makes it hard and indigestible. These statements are approx- 
imately true for the protein of meat and fish as well as of eggs. 

Obviously, then, a high temperature, desirable in cooking 
the starches, is undesirable for the proteids. 

Effects of Cold Water. — Cold water is an extractive. It 
" draws out " the flavors of meats and the starch of the 
starchy vegetables. Therefore the latter should not soak in 
it, nor should meats be subjected to its influence unless it is 
desired to extract the soluble elements, to make a broth, or 
soup, or bouillon. 

Method. — To show the effects of cold water on starchy 
vegetables and something of their composition, use Experi- 
ment 5 and the suggested "Home Work" given under 



164 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Method in the first part of the chapter on Starchy Foods. 
Experiments 2, 8, and 4 show the effects of heat on starch. 
White sauce, its theory and practice, should be taught also. 
To make this still clearer, show them these illustrations : — 




1. Cells of a Raw Potato, with Starch Grains in Natural 

Condition 



To show the effects of different temperatures on albumen, 
try the following experiments : — 

(1) Put an egg in a cold saucepan, cover it with boiling 
water, cover, and put it on a board away from the fire for 
ten minutes. Take the temperature. 

(2) Put an egg in a saucepan in which water is boiling. 
Cover and put away as in 1. Take temperature. 

(3) Put an egg in boiling water and let it boil for ten 
minutes. The temperature will be of course 212° F. 

Notice that in each case the egg has cooked for ten min- 
utes, but at temperatures ranging from about 170°, 185°, to 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKING 



165 




2. Cells of a Potato boiled in Water One-half Hour 




3. Cells of a Potato well steamed and mashed 



166 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

212°. In the first case the white will be coagulated, the 
yolk still uncooked, and the whole egg flavorless ; in the 
second, the albumen will be coagulated, but soft, the yolk 
somewhat thickened, and the whole quite flavory ; in the 
third the white will be hard and indigestible, but the yolk 
will be mealy and eatable. The difference between the time 
occupied in the proper cooking of the yolk and the white is 
due to the fact that the yolk contains a very large amount 
of oil. The presence of oil or fat renders protein less 
susceptible to the hardening effects of heat. The egg in 
experiment two would have been even more satisfactory had 
it been put in cold water and brought to a boil. The high 
temperature at first coagulates the outside a little too much. 
But in no other way was it possible to make the time 
element the same in all experiments. Erom these ex- 
periments it is evident the best temperature for cooking 
the proteids is below the boiling point. 

To show the effect of cold water on proteid, let each stu- 
dent take two small pieces of beef of equal size. Put one 
in cold water, and the other in boiling water, kept boiling 
for several minutes. At the end of half an hour examine 
both liquids and both pieces of meat. In the first instance 
the water will be red at the expense of the meat, from which 
it has extracted much of its juice and soluble food materials. 
In the second instance the hot water coagulated the protein 
on the outside. Within it is still red and juicy. 

Each student should, if possible, perform all these experi- 
ments herself, and must herself think out the deductions. 
She must also be drilled on the facts, for it is only when 
they are at the instant command of her mind that. she will 
be able to continue the subject. 

Boiling and Steaming. — In boiling the food is surrounded 
with water at or near the boiling point. Steaming is con- 
ducted on the same principle, except that the surrounding 
and cooking medium is steam instead of water. 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKING 167 

The cells of vegetables are for the most part enclosed in 
walls of cellulose. The older the vegetables the harder and 
more woody are the walls. From this it follows that the 
older vegetables will require long boiling to set free the 
cell contents. Green vegetables are chiefly valuable for 
the mineral salts that they contain. These unfortunately 
are somewhat soluble in water. They should, therefore, 
be cooked no longer than necessary. All vegetables are 
boiled from the beginning in water at the boiling point. 

In general, boiling of vegetables makes them soft and 
tender, and develops the flavor usually by dissolving out 
dextrin, which is apt to be present wherever starch is found, 
or by changing the starch into dextrin. 

For further details consult the chapter on Starchy Foods. 

Meats and fish are made more tender by boiling ; the 
gelatinoid substances of the connective tissue and of the 
bones are dissolved out, and flavors are developed. 

Meat contains from five to eight per cent of soluble food 
materials. These include not only the amids, extractives, 
and gelatinoids, but also some albumen. Eemembering, too, 
that boiled meat takes longer to digest, it seems doubtful 
wisdom to cook it in this way. 

But it is possible to minimize the loss and to utilize the 
unavoidable waste. This is done by making use of the 
principle that heat coagulates albumen, and that the higher 
the temperature the harder will be the product. 

For this reason all meats to be boiled are immersed in 
boiling water and kept boiling for ten minutes. The result 
of this is that a coat of hard albumen will be formed which 
will efficiently prevent the further escape of juices. If this 
treatment were to be continued, the interior of the meat 
would become hard and indigestible, too. To avoid this, the 
temperature is allowed to fall to about 180° F. ; and with long 
cooking at this " simmering " temperature the meat within 
will be tender and juicy. 



168 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Since the escape of the juices has been prevented in a 
measure, the water in which the meat is boiled is not as 
rich as it would be otherwise; but it is still too good to 
throw away. It may be used in a nutritious, albeit econom- 
ical soup, the recipe for which is given under the head of 
Boiling in the chapter on Proteids. 

Boiling of Bones. — Long boiling of bones changes their 
gelatinoids into soluble gelatin. When this is done under 
high pressure, as in the manufacture of commercial gelatin, 
then nearly all the cartilage is dissolved. Soft, spongy 
bones contain the most gelatin. It must not be forgotten 
that the gelatinoids are excellent fuel foods. It is, there- 
fore, great extravagance not to add bones to the stock pot 
instead of throwing them away. 

Boiling of Milk. — Milk boils at 196° F. For this reason 
it burns easily and should always be cooked in a double 
boiler. The object of boiling milk is to kill possible disease 
germs. Formerly it was " sterilized" by keeping it at boil- 
ing temperature for one hour. This did kill the germs, but 
it also rendered the milk much less digestible. It is now, 
therefore, customary to pasteurize the milk, particularly if 
intended for young children. This is subjecting it to a lower 
temperature for half an hour. An easy and efficient way to 
pasteurize milk is to immerse it in a tightly covered pail of 
boiling water ; set this on a block of wood, or a wooden 
table for half an hour, and then chill it with water and put 
it in the refrigerator. Milk so treated is perfectly digest- 
ible and will keep for at least twenty-four hours. 

Methods. — Tell the children to boil water at home, watch- 
ing it carefully from the beginning. Let them bring to you 
for criticism their written notes on the following points : 

(1) Where do bubbles first form ? 

(2) Where are they largest ? 

(3) When are they largest ? 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKING 169 

(4) What happens just before the actual boiling begins ? 

(5) What is the cause of these bubbles ? 

(6) At what temperature does the water begin to boil ? 
What is its temperature after ten minutes' boiling ? after a 
half -hour ? 

(7) Has no more heat been added to the boiling water ? 

(8) What has become of it ? 

Of course most children will be unable to determine the 
questions of temperature at home. This work, then, must 
be performed in the schoolroom. 

Get from the children the fact that the two important 
sources of foods are plants and animals.. Let them classify 
each. Probably the plants will be subdivided into cereals, 
roots and tubers, green vegetables, fruits ; and animal food 
into milk, eggs, meat, poultry, fish. Consider the ap- 
proximate composition of each, the effect of heat upon it, 
and the consequent method and time of boiling. 

Stewing. — The object of stewing is to cook the meat so 
that it will be tender and juicy, and to serve with it the 
broth in which it has been cooked, which shall also be rich 
and appetizing. Obviously, to put the meat into boiling 
water will keep the broth from receiving its quota of flavor 
and food, and, at the same time, to let it stand in cold water 
will enrich the broth at too great an expense to the meat. 

The usual method is to cut the meat into small pieces, 
thus exposing a large amount of surface to the cold water, 
into which it is then placed. Then raise the temperature 
to the simmering point (180° F.) and let it cook for several 
hours. 

Allowing the water to boil will be fatal to the success of 
the stew, for at that temperature, the albuminoids of the 
meat exposed to the action of the heat, because of the great 
amount of surface, will become hardened and dry. The 
meat may look tender, for the long boiling will dissolve the 



170 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

connective tissue and set the muscle fibres free, only to 
expose them more effectively to the searing action of the 
high temperature, thus rendering them very hard and dry. 

Extracting. — It must be obvious from the above, that 
when the object is to extract from meat its juices, that the 
proper method to be pursued is to cut it into small pieces, 
exposing it for half an hour to the action of cold water. It 
should then be covered, put on the stove, and gradually 
brought to the simmering point. Let it simmer for five or 
six hours. The brown scum that accumulates on the surface 
is coagulated albumen, and thrown away only by the ignorant. 

The meat which is left has lost its extractives (useful 
chiefly for flavor), its salts, and its water, and a small part 
of its fats and albuminoids. It will not sustain life if used 
as an exclusive diet, but at the same time it is great ex- 
travagance to throw it away. The chief objection to it is 
that it is not palatable. To make it so, and also to restore 
to it part of its lost nutritive value, salt it, and use it for 
meat cakes or croquettes. 

Roasting. — In roasting, as in boiling, the object is to sear 
the surface of the meat by subjecting it suddenly to intense 
heat, and then to cook it thoroughly by long exposure to a 
much lower temperature. This is done by putting it into a 
hot oven for about a half-hour. Then, when the outside is 
browned, close all drafts, opening the checks, if necessary, 
to lower the temperature for the slow cooking that will de- 
velop its flavors. 

Potatoes, containing as they do so much moisture, may be 
roasted. Some means of escape must be provided for the 
steam. This is usually accomplished by piercing them with 
a fork, when they are half done. 

Broiling. — Broiling depends on the same principles as 
roasting, but the cooking is done over coals instead of in 
the oven. 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKING 171 

Frying. — Frying, too, depends upon the same principles, 
but the searing medium here is hot fat. The hotter the fat, 
the more efficiently will it sear the meat. Therefore, olive 
oil, which does not burn until it reaches a temperature of 
608° F., is the best material to use. Cotton-seed oil, lard, 
drippings, suet, butter (to give them in the order of their 
burning temperatures), are the next best frying media. 

Doughnuts and batters generally need a lower tempera- 
ture than breaded meats. These in turn do not require as 
high a temperature as potatoes. Fish and all watery articles 
must be fried at the highest possible temperature. 

The rule for all is that the fat should be " smoking hot." 
" Smoking hot," however, may be divided into three classes: 
1st, when a faint blue smoke rises from the centre ; 2d, a 
stronger smoke; and 3d, a still stronger smoke. The last 
is of course the hottest, and the fat must be in this condi- 
tion before it can be used for fish. 

Why does fish require a higher temperature ? Because 
it contains much water, which will lower the temperature. 
Water in the fat means that the temperature will be so 
lowered that it is no longer capable of searing the food, and 
for these reasons penetrates into the interior and soaks it 
with grease. Therefore, in frying any wet food, watch the 
fat carefully. When it has bubbles of steam, let every drop 
of water evaporate by keeping it hot. 

A draft of air cooling the surface of the article to be fried 
will also cause it to absorb the grease. This is the reason 
why it is important to fry only in deep fat. 

The kettle of fat needs particular care. As has been already 
indicated, water must be evaporated from it before it is 
used for frying. Consequently, if it gets too hot, it may be 
cooled by throwing into it a handful of raw sliced potatoes. 

After use it should be at once set in a cooler place, and, 
when quite cool, but still liquid, strained. 



172 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Method. — Treat these processes of cooking in the way- 
suggested for boiling. 

It is most important that, if possible, the experiments 
shall be individual work. At any rate the facts deduced 
from such experiment must be reasoned out by each pupil. 
An excellent device is first to review the experiment so as 
to be sure that all essential details are familiar to them, 
then to ask suggestive questions developing the theory 
involved, allowing each student to write her answer. The 
papers may be changed, and each, over her own signature, 
may criticise the answer of another. Collect the papers. 
For your own advantage look over some at least of the 
answers originally given up. Sometimes it is a good plan 
to let the children write an answer after you have taught 
the lesson. 

Do not forget that in this, as in all other subjects, drill is 
absolutely necessary. 



CHAPTER VIII 

FISH, OYSTERS, AND SALADS 

By ALICE HOOPER BECKLER, B.S. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

General : Riverside Natural History ; Encyclopaedia Britannica. 
Technical: Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals, Huxley; Elementary 
Course in Practical Zoology, Colton. Propagation: Finny Proteges 
of Uncle Sam, Cosmopolitan, February, 1895 ; Conservation of the 
Mackerel Supply, Popular Science, April, 1893; Collecting Salmon 
Spawn in Maine, Harper's, June, 1874 ; Growth of Salmon, Popular 
Science, October, 1873 ; also, Popular Science, Vol. 35, p. 359 ; Temple 
Bar, Vol. 92, p. 203. Food : U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' 
Bulletin, No. 85, Fish as Food. 

For further investigation refer to the Bulletins of the United States 
Fish Commission, any of which will be sent upon application to the 
department at Washington. 

FISH 

The term fish, when used to express the article of diet, 
generally includes, besides the backboned forms, mollusks 
and crustaceans. Here, however, it refers only to the lowest 
group of the vertebrates. 

External Anatomy. — Shape of Body. The flat body, taper- 
ing at both ends and covered with scales, is well adapted for 
rapid movement though the water. This is accomplished 
in the same manner as in sculling a boat, the oar in this 
case being the tail of the fish, which is drawn to the side 
and then forcibly straightened, thus sending the fish forward. 

173 



174 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 




FISH 175 

Fins. — These are folds of the skin supported by long pro- 
cesses or spines. Like most vertebrates, the fish also has 
two pairs of appendages, the paired Jlns, the anterior 
known as the pectoral, or arm fins ; the posterior, the pelvic, 
ventral, or leg fins. The latter vary in position, situated 
sometimes near the pectoral, sometimes nearer the anal. 

Head. — The posterior boundary of the head is marked by 
the gill cover, under which we find the gills. 

Sense Organs. — Eyes and nostrils appear on the head. 
The ears have no external openings. Another sense organ 
of doubtful function is the lateral line which extends though- 
out the entire length of the fish from the gill cover on each 
side. 

Protective Covering. — The scales, attached at the forward 
end and overlapping those behind, lie beneath a thin skin 
which often contains pigment. 

Internal Anatomy. — The drawing on page 176 explains 
the position of the internal organs in the perch. These lie 
in a cavity bounded dorsally by the backbone, posteriorly 
by the anal fin, and anteriorly by the head. 

Edible Portion. — Along the entire length of the backbone, 
on each side, from the head to the tail-fin, are to be found 
larger strips of muscle divided into sections or " flakes. " 
This muscle is generally white in color, such fish as salmon, 
herring, mackerel, and sturgeon being exceptions. The 
muscle fibres are larger in the fish than in any of the other 
vertebrates, and have less connective tissue holding them 
together. On this account the flesh of the fish is not only 
quickly cooked but easily broken during the process. 

Development. — The sexes are as a rule separate. The 
ovaries when ripe constitute the " roes," the corresponding 
organs in the male giving rise to the " milt." The eggs are 
laid in the sand or attached to rocks or to water plants by 
the female, the male subsequently passing over them the 



176 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 




FISH 177 

milt which fertilizes them. Many eggs are laid, but many- 
are devoured long before they are large enough to escape 
from the other fish which feed upon them. The length of 
time taken in development is very short, thereby insuring 
greater safety. The United States Fish Commission, by 
artificially propagating the young fish, and then stocking 
ponds, streams, and bays, protects many fish from utter 
annihilation. 

The eggs and milt are taken from the mature fish, mixed, 
and then placed in jars of water which reproduce as far as 
possible natural conditions. Here, in the various hatcheries 
belonging to the government, the young fish live until 
large enough to be taken with safety to their own natural 
environment. " The product of the shad fishery is to-day as 
much a subject of artificial control as the corn crops," said 
the late Hon. Marshall McDonald, the United States Com- 
missioner of Fish and Fisheries. This statement would 
apply equally to the cod of the New England coast, the 
salmon of the Pacific, and the whitefish of the Great Lakes. 
All of these fisheries are preserved to-day by the labors of 
the Fish Commission. 

Preparation for the Market. — As an important article of 
food, the value of fish cannot be overestimated. It enters 
into the diet of nearly every American family. Generally 
speaking, fish taken from cold, clear, deep water, with a 
sandy or rocky bottom, are preferable to those taken from 
warm, muddy, shallow water. Thus, most of our important 
fisheries are in our northern Atlantic and Pacific states, and 
in those bordering on the great lakes. Fish should be killed 
at once after taking from the water, as, otherwise, the flesh 
becomes soft and does not bear shipment so well. The 
ordinary method for transportation is packing in ice. Some- 
times the organs are removed, or in other words, the fish is 
" dressed " before packing. More frequently, however, it is 



178 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

packed " whole." Fishermen, as a rule, do not use proper 
care in handling the fish, so that, when offered for sale in 
the city markets, it is anything but attractive. The outer 
skin, from rough handling becoming injured, very soon 
gives rise at those points to decay, which rapidly spreads 
throughout the fish. 

Then, too, the internal organs probably begin to decom- 
pose very shortly after death, and should therefore be 
removed before shipment. Bleeding the fish after capture 
would also prevent rapid decay. Direct contact with the 
ice is not the best method of transportation. When the 
proper precautions are taken in shipping, this important 
article of food will become more attractive, and will then 
assume a larger and more important place in our diet than 
at the present time. 

Large quantities of fish are preserved by drying,- salting, 
smoking, and canning. 

Seasonableness. — Most fish are not seasonable at the time 
of spawning, the flesh at this time being less firm, the nutri- 
tion going mainly to the reproductive organs. Some fish, 
the shad for example, are preferred at this time. Herring, 
too, is captured usually at this season, since at other times 
it is very difficult to take. 

The following list was obtained from a Philadelphia 
dealer, and represents the fish purchased by him during 
each month of the year. 

January 

Cod ; Haddock ; Hake ; Black Bass ; White Perch ; White 
Catfish ; Eed Catfish ; Spotted Trout ; Ciscoes ; Spotted 
Drum; Nova Scotia Herring; Smelts; Spanish Mackerel; 
Rockfish; Halibut; Sunfish ; Salmon; Eels; Green Pike; 
Blue Pike; Gray Pike. 



FISH 179 



February 

Cod; Hake; Haddock; Halibut; Spotted Trout; White 
Perch ; Nova Scotia Herring ; Ciscoes ; Smelts ; Crokers ; 
Shad; White Catfish ; Eed Catfish; Eockfish; Black Bass ; 
Eels ; Green Pike ; Blue Pike ; Gray Pike ; Salmon ; Floun- 
ders. 

March 

Cod ; Hake ; Haddock ; Halibut ; Ciscoes ; Smelts ; White 
Perch; Eockfish; Nova Scotia Herring; Shad; Spotted 
Trout; Salmon; Crokers; Black Bass; Eels; Flounders; 
White Catfish ; Eed Catfish ; Green Pike. 

April 

Cod; Hake; Haddock; Halibut; Shad; White Perch; 
Yellow Perch; Eockfish; Eels; White and Eed Catfish; 
Flounders ; Salmon ; Crokers ; Bluefish ; Weakfish ; Dela- 
ware Herring ; Sheephead ; Cape May Goodies ; Sturgeon ; 
Porgy; Butterfish. 

May 

Shad ; Delaware Herring : Hake ; Cod ; Haddock ; Eock- 
fish; White Perch; Yellow Perch; Bluefish; Weakfish; 
Sturgeon ; Porgie ; Flounders ; Eed Drum ; Black Drum ; 
Crokers ; Cape May Goodies ; Sheephead ; Eels ; Eed and 
White Catfish; Halibut; Salmon; Spanish Mackerel ; Butter- 
fish. 

June 

Same as May, with addition of Sea Bass ; Kingfish ; Black- 
fish. 

July 
Same as June, but no Shad or Delaware Herring. 



180 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

August 
Same as July, but no Sturgeon. 

September 

Same as August, with addition of Ciscoes ; Eound Mack- 
erel; Whitefish. 

October 
Same as September. 

November 
Same as October, but no Porgies, Blackfish, or Kingfish. 

December 

Same as November, but no Black Drum, Red Drum, 
Butterfish, or Cape May Goodies ; with addition of Blue 
Pike ; Spotted Drum. 

Kinds of Fish. — If Chart I be examined, it will be 
seen that the amount of oil contained in the flesh of 
the fish varies, thus giving rise to two classes, the dry 
or white fish, like the cod, haddock, and bluefish, and the 
oily fish, salmon, mackerel, and shad. It is the oil which 
imparts to these fish their characteristic flavor. Halibut 
falls between the two classes. 

The dry fishes, owing to lack of flavor, require, in cook- 
ing, seasoning and rich sauces. 

Nutritive Value of Fish. — In Chart II fish is compared 
with other common foods, as regards amount of nutrients. 
Like beef and mutton, it will be seen that fish is rich in the 
nitrogenous principle, proteid, and should hold the same 
place in our diet as these ; that is, it should be accompanied 
by foods rich in carbohydrates, as potatoes, bread, and the 
like, and served with a thickened sauce. Fish is, also, 
stuffed, thus adding the carbohydrate element. 



FISH 



181 



Proteid 



Fat 




Chart I. — Showing Relative Food Value of Different 
Varieties of Fish 



182 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



General average of fish- 
Beef, side medium fat_. 

Veal, side 

Mutton, eide 

Chicken 

Milk 

Oysters 

Beans, dried 

Potato 

Corn, canned , — 

Salad greens 



~ 



aiE 



H 



□ 



Chart II. — Showing Relative Food Value of Fish and Other 

Foods 



1 Pound 



2 Pounds 



Codfish 

Blueflsh 

Halibut 

Cod, salt 

Mackerel, salt- 
Salmon, canned. 

Beef, sirloin 

tt ., round 



" , stew meat. 

Mutton, chops _ . 

u ? leg 

Pork, roast loin_ 
Potatoes 




Chart III. — Showing Amounts of Protedd to be obtained for 
One Dollar, in Different Forms of Food 



FISH 183 

From the side of economy, fish also holds its own. Chart 
III shows the amount of proteid which one dollar will 
buy in various forms of food. It will be seen that fresh fish 
falls between the expensive and the cheaper meats, the 
salted and canned fish approaching more nearly the latter. 

Note. — The teacher is strongly recommended to copy and enlarge 
these charts, that the pupils may discover these points for themselves. 

Digestibility of Fish. — The question of digestibility is 
always important in estimating the food value of any 
article. An analysis may show that a food is rich in 
proteid, and yet, if a considerable portion of that proteid 
pass through the alimentary canal undigested, its value 
is very much impaired. As far as can be ascertained, fish 
and lean meat seem to be about equally digestible. Just as 
leaner meats are more easily digested than the fatter kinds, 
probably the white or dry fishes are more easily digested 
than the oily, as shad, mackerel, and salmon. 

Dangers from eating Fish. — Probably these are no greater 
than for meat. Like meat, the flesh of the fish may contain 
parasites ; and if not perfectly fresh, it may, like meat, con- 
tain the resulting compounds of bacterial decomposition, 
the ptomaines. If thoroughly cooked, the danger from 
parasites is eliminated ; and if only fresh fish is used, the 
danger from bacterial poisoning disappears. To insure the 
latter condition, great care should be used in preparing fish 
for the market, and it should be eaten as soon after capture 
as possible. Canned fish should always be used at once 
after opening. 

Selection of Fish at the Market. — A fresh fish always 
has the eyes clear, the scales brilliant, the gills a vivid 
red color, and the body stiff, leaving no mark when pressed 
by the finger. 

To scale the Fish. — After rinsing in cold salted water, 



184 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

lay the fish on the side, firmly grasp the tail, and with a 
sharp knife remove the scales by scraping from the tail 
towards the head. Rinse the knife frequently in cold 
water to remove the scales. 

Cleaning the Fish. — This should be done as soon as pos- 
sible. Eest it on the back and cut on the ventral side 
from the anus forward to a point between the gills. This 
exposes the whole body cavity, containing the internal 
organs. Remove all of these, taking great care not to 
break the gall sac (see drawing). The kidneys lying 
directly under the backbone must be scraped away. Wash 
quickly, not allowing it to soak, wipe out with a clean 
towel, and if not to be used at once, sprinkle a little salt on, 
and put away in a cool place. 

Methods of Cooking. — The rules for the cooking of meat 
apply here for the fish. During the process of cooking, 
fish, while retaining probably most of its oil and proteid, 
loses a large amount of water, thus becoming much drier. 
For this reason a sauce generally accompanies the fish 
when served. 

Boiling. — (See chapter on Methods of Cooking.) Salt 
and an acid, such as vinegar or lemon, coagulate albumen, 
and are therefore frequently added to the water. Besides 
this, salt also raises the temperature of the water slightly. 
Since the fish is so easily broken, the water should never 
actively boil after the fish has been added to it. 

To boil Cod. — For boiling, the head and tail should be 
removed. Wash the fish and remove the black skin by 
placing in a pan of boiling water for two or three minutes. 
The skin can then be scraped off. Place the fish on a lifter 
or wrap it in a piece of cheese cloth. Put it in the kettle 
with enough boiling water to cover it, to which has been 
added 1 tablespoon of salt, 1 tablespoon of vinegar or lemon 
juice, 3 cloves, 3 peppercorns, 1 bay leaf, 1 small onion and 



FISH 185 

carrot sliced. Simmer, allowing ten minutes to the pound. 
Before serving let the fish remain five minutes in the water 
to "improve," that is to absorb more of the seasoning. 

To serve the Fish. — Arrange a napkin on the platter 
and place the fish upon it. Garnish with hard boiled eggs, 
or lemon, and parsley. Serve with boiled fish either egg or 
Hollandaise sauce. 

Egg Sauce. — \ cup butter, 1 tablespoon flour, \ teaspoon 
salt, ^ pint boiling water, 3 hard boiled eggs. Mix the 
butter, flour, and salt, add the water, boil up once and re- 
move from the fire. Add the eggs chopped. 

To fry Small Fish. — The head and tail are not removed 
in small fish. Dry the fish thoroughly, dust with salt and 
pepper, and roll in flour or crumbs, then in egg, and in 
crumbs again. Drop them into deep hot fat, or place first 
in frying basket, and then lower into the fat. The length 
of time needed to cook thoroughly depends upon the size of 
the fish. Smelts take about four minutes, larger fish a 
longer time. 

To serve Fried Fish. — Allow all the fat to drain from 
the fish, then serve, garnishing with slices of lemon and 
parsley. 

Baking. — In baking, the fish is cooked in its own juices, 
the heating medium being mainly hot air. In this method 
of cooking considerable evaporation of the juices takes 
place from the outer surface. To prevent the fish from 
becoming too dry, therefore, it has to be frequently 
"basted" with the juices coming from it, and with the 
fat which has been added. By thus forming a coating of 
fat over the surface more of the juices are retained. The 
high temperature of the oven causes a certain amount of 
browning, as in frying, which adds greatly to the flavor. 

In baked fish probably a large amount of water is driven 
off, thus concentrating somewhat the extractives, thereby 



186 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

imparting a stronger flavor than in boiled, or even fried fish. 
Dry fishes need the addition of fat in baking. 

To bake Cod. — This rule applies equally to haddock, blue- 
fish, bass, or shad. Allow fifteen minutes to a pound. Kub 
the fish with salt and pepper, stuff it, and sew it up. 

Stuffing. — 1 cup bread crumbs, 3 tablespoons butter, ^ 
teaspoon salt, \ teaspoon pepper, 1 teaspoon chopped onion, 
1 teaspoon chopped pickles, 1 teaspoon chopped parsley. 
Melt the butter, and stir in the other ingredients. This is 
enough for a four-pound cod. 

The head and tail should not be removed, but should be 
wrapped in greased paper to retain their shape so far as 
possible. Brush the fish over with lemon juice. Cut gashes 
across the fish on each side about three inches apart, into 
which insert strips of salt pork. Grease a fish sheet with a 
piece of pork, place the fish on it, and put into an uncovered 
roasting pan, with the pork around it. Bake quickly, bast- 
ing every ten minutes with the fat in the pan, not omitting 
the paper covering the head and tail. 

To serve the Baked Fish. — Garnish with plenty of parsley 
or watercress, in order to partially conceal the head and tail. 
Use also slices of lemon. The sauce may be poured around 
the fish or served separately. 

Brown Sauce. — 1 cup hot beef stock, or 1 cup boiling 
water, and ^ teaspoon beef extract dissolved in it. 2 table- 
spoons melted butter, 1 heaping tablespoon flour, \ teaspoon 
salt, 1 slice onion. Melt the butter, and brown the slice 
of onion in it. Kemove onion, and let the butter become 
well browned. Then add to it the flour and gradually the 
bouillon. Stir and cook a few minutes ; add the salt and 
a dash of pepper. 

To broil Fish. — Small fish are broiled whole ; cod, had- 
dock, if large, as well as halibut and salmon, are best cut in 
slices. Medium sized fishes, as shad, bluefish, mackerel, and 



FISH 187 

trout, should be split down the back and have head and tail 
removed. Heat the broiler, and grease. Flour or butter 
the fish to prevent sticking. 

Broiled Cod. — Take slices about one inch thick, season 
with salt and pepper, and dredge with flour. Broil twelve 
minutes. Serve with butter sauce and garnish with parsley. 

Butter Sauce. — \ cup butter, juice ± lemon, i tablespoon 
chopped parsley, 1 saltspoon salt, pepper. Cream the butter 
until foamy and light, add lemon juice, parsley, salt, and 
pepper. Spread over fish as soon as it is broiled. 

SYNOPSIS OF LESSONS 

(Two hours each) 

First Lesson 

1. Selection of fish at the market. 

2. Anatomy : external and internal, edible and non-edible 

portions, structure and composition of edible portion. 

3. Clean the fish. 

4. Boil the fish. 

5. Method of serving. 

6. Sauce. 

If possible at this time, take the fish as the subject of 
nature lessons, using the fish in the schoolroom aquaria. 
The explanation of the subjects here indicated is given under 
essentially the same headings in the preceding pages of this 
chapter. Use cod or haddock, the size depending upon the 
size of the class. After cleaning the fish, cut into small 
pieces, giving each pupil three pieces. 

Questions and Directions for Pupils. — Examine the piece of 
uncooked fish. How does the flesh of fish resemble that of 
beef or mutton ? 

How does it differ from it ? 



188 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Have three small stewpans, one containing cold water ; a 
second, water at the point of boiling ; a third, water at the 
boiling point, to which has been added a half teaspoonful of 
salt, a half teaspoonful vinegar, one clove, one peppercorn, 
a half bay leaf, a slice of onion and carrot. 

Into each stewpan place at the same time a piece of fish. 
Allow the one in cold water to come to the boiling point, 
keeping it at that temperature about eight minutes. Keep 
the other two at the boiling point, but not actively boiling, 
for about eight minutes also. 

What differences did you observe in the three pieces as 
they were immersed ? 

What caused these differences ? 

What appeared on the water in the first stewpan? 
What was the cause of this ? 

Why was the vinegar and salt added to the third ? 

Why was the clove, peppercorn, etc. 

Taste each piece, and decide which is the best method to 
use in boiling a fish. 

Why should the water not boil vigorously ? 

Why is a fish wrapped in cloth when boiled ? 

Dictate to the class the rule for boiling a fish ; also the 
sauce to serve with it, and method of serving. Let each 
child then make the sauce according to the following indi- 
vidual rule. 

Egg Sauce (Individual). — 1 tablespoon butter, i table- 
spoon flour, ^ teaspoon salt, 1 gill boiling water, \ hard boiled 
egg. Mix butter and flour together, add water gradually, 
stirring all the time. When it thickens, take from the fire 
and add the egg chopped fine. 

Second Lesson 

1. Nutritive value of different kinds of fish (Chart I). 

2. Dry and oily fish (Chart I). 



FISH 189 

3. Frying fisli. 

4. Uses of left-over fish : cream fish. 

The chart, copied and enlarged, should be hung on the 
wall where the pupils can all see it clearly. After explain- 
ing which tint or color stands for proteid, and which for 
fat, let them discover the two kinds of fish, dry and oily, 
having, if possible, the two kinds to show to them. Canned 
salmon will serve for the oily fish. Discuss the differences 
in flavor in the two varieties. 

Let each child then prepare a small fish, smelt or perch, 
for frying. This will review the last lesson on cleaning, 
and give each child an opportunity to put into practice 
that which was before demonstrated by the teacher. Point 
out the differences between frying and so-called frying, or 
sauteing. 

Questions to Suggest. — Why should a deep kettle be used 
in frying ? 

How do you know when the fat is sufficiently heated for 
frying the fish ? 

What difference do you observe between immersing in hot 
fat and in hot water ? 

What is the cause of the spluttering when the fish is im- 
mersed ? 

How does the fish change in appearance ? Why ? 

What is " browning " ? 

Why was no crust formed on the boiled fish ? 

Note the difference in taste between the boiled and fried 
fish. 

Uses of Left-over Fish. — The teacher may use any rule 
here that she may prefer. The following recipe is given in 
both the large and the individual rule, and is recommended 
for cold boiled fish. 

Fish a la Creme. — 1 tablespoon butter, 1 tablespoon flour, 



190 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

1 cup hot milk, in which \ bay leaf and 1 slice onion have 
been simmering, \ teaspoon salt, pepper, yolk of 1 egg, 1J 
cups cold flaked fish. 

Melt butter till it bubbles. Stir in the flour, and add the 
milk gradually. Stir until perfectly smooth; add a few 
grains pepper and the salt. Kemove from the fire, and add 
the beaten yolk of an egg, to which a tablespoon of cold milk 
has been added to prevent coagulation. Pour this sauce 
over the cold flaked fish ; put into a baking dish, sprinkle 
with a little salt and pepper, and cover with bread crumbs. 
Bake in a hot oven until brown. 

Individual Rule. — J teaspoon butter, i teaspoon flour, \ 
cup hot milk, | bay leaf, \ slice onion, \ yolk of an egg, \ 
cup cold flaked fish, pepper and salt. 

Put the piece of bay leaf and onion in the cold milk, and 
let it remain until the milk is hot. Bake in scallop shells. 

Third Lesson 

1. Digestibility of fish. 

2. Value of fish as food. Compare with other foods 

(Charts II and III). 

3. Necessity for seasoning most fish. 

4. Baking fish. 

5. Stuffing. 

6. Sauce. 

Let each child again make use of a small fish, smelt or 
perch. The object in this lesson is to give each one an op- 
portunity to learn the technique by doing the work for her- 
self from the beginning. Small fish accomplish this end as 
well as large, and, at the same time, reduce the expense. 
The individual rule for stuffing may be more than enough 
for a very small fish like a smelt. 

After stuffing the fish, sew it, and follow the same di- 



FISH 191 

rections as used in the large fish, care being taken in slash- 
ing to have the gashes on opposite sides alternate. All the 
fish may then be baked together in a large baking pan, each 
student's name being attached to her fish. Some extra 
strips of pork must be placed in the pan. 

While the fish is baking, let each one make the sauce, and 
prepare the lemon and parsley for garnishing, not omitting, 
however, the basting of the fish. 

Questions. — How is the heat applied in baking ? 

How does this differ from frying ? From boiling ? 

In baking the fish, why is it necessary to continually 
baste it ? 

Why is the pork used ? 

What is gained by stuffing the fish ? 

Brown Sauce. — (For individual rule see Sauces in chapter 
on Starchy Foods.) 

Fourth Lesson 

1. Propagation of fish. Work of United States Fish Com- 

mission. (See Development.) 

2. Season of fish. (List of months.) 

3. Dangers from eating fish. 

4. Broiling fish. 

5. Sauce. 

6. Serving. 

In this lesson either let each pupil broil a slice of cod, and 
also a smelt, or let half the class use one fish, the other half 
the second. The directions for broiling cod have already 
been given. 

To Broil a Smelt. — This is used to show the method used 
in medium sized and small fishes. Split the smelt down the 
back and remove the backbone. Place upon a hot greased 
broiler, and broil over hot coals a very few minutes. 



192 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Questions. — What is " broiling " ? 

Why is it necessary to have the coals glowing ? 

Why should a crust be formed quickly on both sides ? 

What causes the puffy appearance of the fish ? 

Butter Sauce (Individual Rule). — 1 tablespoon butter, J 
teaspoon lemon juice, -| teaspoon chopped parsley, \ salt- 
spoon salt, pepper. 

Rub and beat butter until light and foamy. Add lemon 
juice and parsley, salt, and a few grains pepper. Spread on 
the fish when it comes from the broiler. 



OYSTEKS 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

General : Life and Her Children, Arabella Buckley ; Riverside 
Natural History. Technical : The Oyster, W. K. Brooks ; First Book 
of Zoology, Morse ; Oyster, Clam, and Other Common Mollusks, Hyatt. 
Propagation: Oysters and Method Culture, Bulletin of U.S. Fish 
Commissioner; also, Lippincott, vol. 59, p. 536 ; Scribner, vol. 10, 
p. 469. 

We have only to look at those massive heaps of shells 
left here and there along our shores or river banks to realize 
that man's fondness for the oyster is very ancient. Wherever 
the mollusk flourished the debris from the feasts tells of the 
enormous number consumed. Of all mollusks the oyster is 
the favorite. When the settlers reached these shores the 
oyster industry was very active, the Indians near the shore 
catching them and selling them to those living farther in- 
land. 

As the inhabitants increased, and towns sprang up, the 
oysters began to diminish in number until many beds were 
completely destroyed. The increasing scarcity finally led 
oystermen to increase the area of the natural beds, or to 
plant new ones, and place the young oysters upon them. 



OYSTERS 



193 



Anatomy of Oyster. — The oyster, together with the 
clam, mussel, and scallop, belongs to the group of inverte- 
brate animals, mollusca, which means soft bodies. The 
oyster has no distinct head, nor even a foot for digging, as 



Stomach 
Intestine 



- -A-\ — Keprodtjctive Gland 



Heart. 



Anus 




Genital Opening 
Muscle 



has the clam. Its soft body is enclosed by a fold of mem- 
brane known as the mantle, which secretes a shell made up 
of two valves. These valves are held together by a very 
strong muscle, the position of which is shown in the large 



194 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

blue spot, frequently called the eye, on the inside of each 
shell. 

Since the oyster always remains attached after its larval 
life, it has no organs for locomotion ; and since it always 
rests upon one valve, that valve becomes deeper than the 
upper one, which then acts as a cover. This cover is left 
open, that the water may pass over the gills and also to the 
mouth, situated near the hinge, where four palps carry the 
food into the opening, and thus into the alimentary canal. 
When danger threatens, the cover is instantly closed. Even 
this, however, is not proof against the oyster's enemies. 
Chief among these is perhaps the starfish. 

Planted Beds. — In the natural beds there is always a great 
deal of crowding. Many oysters die because with the growth 
of those next to them it becomes impossible for them to 
open the shell. By spreading oyster shells near the natural 
bed, the area of the latter is increased. The "spat" at- 
taching themselves to these shells prevent crowding on the 
old bed, and very much increase the yield. 

" Seed " oysters are young oysters varying in size from 
one to one and one-half inches in length. The raising of 
"seed" oysters is known as "farming." The chief source 
of the seed on our coast is the Chesapeake and the Con- 
necticut shore, the latter sending large quantities to Europe. 

The seed is planted mainly along the whole New England 
coast, Long Island Sound, New York Bay, and Delaware 
Bay. It is now being extended farther south, and even 
along our southern shores in the Gulf of Mexico. 

Preparation for the Market. — It is customary to eschew 
oysters during the months which possess no "r" in their 
name, since during these months the eggs are developing 
and being discharged. The sexes are separate in the oyster 
of our eastern coast. The reproductive glands, wheri, filled 
with the ripe generative cells, stand out on each side of 



OYSTERS 195 

the body as large white masses. Dr. Brooks has estimated 
that a medium sized Maryland oyster will discharge an- 
nually sixteen million eggs. 

Many oystermen transplant the oysters from muddy to 
gravelly beds for a few months, in order to rid the intestine 
-of all mud taken in with the food. Then, too, just before 
bringing to market the oysters are placed in brackish water 
to " fatten," since a higher price can be obtained generally 
for oysters thus treated. By this process the oysters gain 
in weight probably by absorption of water into the tissues, 
but lose a small amount of nutrients. 

Sometimes oysters acquire a green coloration, due to cer- 
tain vegetable organisms upon which they have fed, the 
green color being especially noticeable in the gills. This 
does not in any way injure the oyster, which as a rule is 
plump and round from the abundance of food. In Europe 
the green oysters are very much prized. 

Owing to the close fit of the edges of the shells, oysters 
will live a long time out of water, and in this condition may 
be transported long distances in barrels or sacks. 

The size of the oyster depends to a great extent upon its 
age. Most small oysters receive the name " Blue Points," 
although very few of them probably are from Long Island. 

Nutritive Value. — From the chart it will be seen that 
oysters contain about the same amount of nutrition as an 
equal amount of milk, that is one quart of oysters would 
about equal one quart of milk. As an article of food they 
are expensive, and must be regarded as a luxury. Un- 
cooked and with the gills removed they are easily digested. 

Preparation for Cooking. — Pour half a cup of cold water 
over one quart of oysters, and with clean hands take them 
out separately, removing any bits of shell or seaweed. The 
small crabs, frequently found with the oysters, are very 
delicate morsels, and should be cooked with the oysters. 



196 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

The oyster liquor is seldom used, since so much comes from 
the oysters while cooking. If it is desired, however, it 
should be strained before using. 

Oyster Soup. — 1 quart oysters, 1 pint milk, 1 tablespoon 
butter, 2 tablespoons flour, salt to taste, J saltspoon pepper, 
two pieces celery. 

Heat the milk and celery in a double boiler while you 
prepare the oysters. (Directions already given.) Strain 
the oyster liquor through the finest strainer. Put on to 
boil. Eemove the scum, and when clear add the oysters. 
Let them simmer until they begin to grow plump and the 
edges curl or separate. Strain the liquor into the milk, put 
the oysters where they will keep hot but not cook. Melt 
the butter, stir in the flour while bubbling, and add the milk 
gradually. Boil three or four minutes. Eemove from the 
fire, add the oysters, and serve very hot. 

Oyster Stew is made like oyster soup without the thick- 
ening. 

Creamed Oysters are made in very much the same way. 
A cream sauce is first made, and the oysters, after parboiling, 
are added to it. These may be served on toast or in pattie 
shells. 

Lesson 

1. Anatomy of the Oyster. 

2. Food of Oyster. 

3. Enemies of the Oyster. 

4. Oyster Beds — Natural and Planted. 

5. Preparation for the Market. Position of Most Exten- 

sive Beds. 

6. Nutritive Value. 

7. Preparation for Cooking. 

8. Oyster Soup. Oyster Stew. Creamed Oysters. 



SALADS 197 

Method. — Let each pupil have an oyster, from which the 
flat (right) valve has been removed, so that it rests on the 
deep (left) valve. Place a drawing of the anatomy upon 
the board and go over it with the specimens before them. 
If other mollusks have been taken, compare. Take, then, 
the subjects indicated in the above outline. Use the indi- 
vidual rules given below. 

Oyster Soup (Individual Eule). — 3 oysters, \ cup milk, 2 
tablespoons oyster liquor, 1 level teaspoon flour, 1 teaspoon 
butter (slightly rounded), 1 saltspoon salt, speck of white 
pepper, 2 inch piece of celery. 

SALADS 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chambers's Journal, vol. 60, p. 315. Olives, Encyclopaedia Brit- 
annica; Overland, vol. 21, p. 278; vol. 18, p. 420; Bulletin of U.S. 
Department of Agriculture, Olive Culture in the United States. 

Food Value of Salad. — No dinner is complete without a 
salad, and only on the score of lack of time should it be 
omitted. The number of possible salads is legion. A salad, 
as a rule, has three good qualities : it is healthful, it may be 
economical, and also very attractive. It is healthful in that 
it adds to our diet the fresh, green, uncooked vegetables, and 
a mild acid, both of which are especially beneficial. In 
cooking vegetables, much mineral matter is lost which is of 
course retained in the uncooked greens of the salad. 

Economy. — It is economical, since in a salad we may 
make use of left-over portions. There is scarcely any meat or 
vegetable left from dinner that cannot be used in this way. 

It is hard to realize what a close connection exists 
between the eye and the digestive organs, but an attractive, 
well-served dish adds very materially to one's appetite and 



198 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

to one's digestive powers. A well-made salad is the most 
attractive part of the dinner. 

Greens used for Salads. — In plants, the cell wall is a much 
harder, firmer substance than that of animal tissue. It is 
known as cellulose, and is, chemically, closely related to 
starch, belonging to the class of compounds, carbohydrates. 
This cellulose differs markedly in its physical character- 
istics. Thus in the potato it is loose and spongy, in celery 
much tougher and elastic, in wood it becomes very compact, 
and in the shells of nuts extremely hard. Cooking softens 
this cellulose wall. 

Since age increases the amount and the toughness of the 
cellulose wall, only young plants should be used in salads. 
The list of plants used is a large one. Most of them have 
been known and cultivated for this purpose for centuries, 
originating probably in the Eastern countries. We read of 
them in Greek and Eoman writings, serving the same pur- 
pose as at the present day. 

Cultivated herbs, lettuces, escarole, chicory, endive, celery, 
nasturtium, and wild greens, watercress, dandelion, daisy, 
mustard, and peppergrass, constitute the plants most used 
at the present day. 

Variety of Salads. — So large is the list of possible salads, 
that one knows scarcely which to select. Almost any vege- 
table, meat, or fish may be made into a salad. 

For convenience they may be divided into four grades : 

First ; those made from the herbs, cultivated or w r ild, 
given in the above list. These are, of course, uncooked, and 
may be used alone or combined with lettuce. They are 
served as a rule with a French dressing. 

Second ; salads made with lettuce as a foundation, and 
uncooked fruits or vegetables, as, apple, nut and apple, 
orange, banana, apple and celery, tomato and cucumber. A 
mayonnaise dressing is generally used in these salads. 



SALADS 199 

Tliird ; salads made with lettuce as a foundation, and a 
cooked vegetable, as potato, asparagus, beet, cauliflower, rice, 
and bean. Mayonnaise or French dressing is used. 

Fourth ; salads made with lettuce or celery as a founda- 
tion, and meat, fish, or egg. Mayonnaise is served with all 
of these salads. 

Preparation of Greens. — These should be as fresh and crisp 
as possible. To keep them in this condition until needed, 
place them in very cold water. If the ends of the stems 
are cut, and a little salt added to the water, they will revive 
more rapidly. They should be thoroughly washed, and 
dried with a soft, clean towel, then put in a cool place. 
Never mix the salad until it is to be served, as the acid 
wilts the greens. 

French Dressing. — An old Spanish proverb says: "To 
make a good salad, four persons are required ; a counsellor 
for salt, a miser for vinegar, a spendthrift for oil, and a mad- 
man to stir all together." The general rule for French 
dressing is twice as much oil as vinegar. 

^ saltspoon salt, \ saltspoon pepper, black or white, 2 
tablespoons oil, 1 tablespoon vinegar. 

Put the oil, salt, and pepper in a bowl, stir until the salt 
is dissolved, then add the vinegar drop by drop, stirring all 
the time. 

Onion juice may be added, and lemon juice may be used 
instead of vinegar. 

A teaspoonful of mustard may be added to the vinegar if 
desired. Tarragon vinegar may be used. 

The dressing should be creamy and of a grayish color, due 
to the division of the oil into small globules. If the oil sep- 
arates, stir hard. 



200 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Salads made with French Dressing 

Green vegetable salads, as lettuce, watercress, or any leaf 
salad; apple, celery, potato, cucumber, string beans, cold 
slaw, cheese, and yellow tomato. 

Preparation of Olive Oil. — There is no tree in the world 
more interesting than the olive tree. Emblem of peace and 
hope, it was especially sacred to the Athenians, who en- 
deavored to turn from the pursuits of war to the arts of 
peace and the cultivation of the soil. To the Christian, it 
has the added sacredness of sorrow, intensified by the gray- 
green foliage of the tree itself. The olive and vine are 
closely associated with regard to locality, both requiring an 
equable, mild climate. Thus to-day both flourish best along 
the shores of the Mediterranean. 

Two forms of olive tree are known : the wild olive, with 
bitter, scanty fruit, growing in barren lands ; and the culti- 
vated olive, which is grafted upon the former. The olive 
tree grows very slowly, but lives for centuries. Thus, eight 
aged trees with gnarled trunks give unmistakable proof of 
the site of the " Garden of Gethsemane." One old tree near 
Nice is said to be one thousand years old. 

Under the most careful culture the olive bears fruit in 
the fourth, fifth, or sixth year. The leaves are elongated, 
opposite, and smooth on the upper surface. The flowers, 
growing in clusters in the axils of the leaves, are whitish 
in color. The ripe fruit is deeply colored — dark red or 
purple, deep brown or black. To remove the bitter taste, 
which even the ripe fruit has, the olives must go through a 
special process before pickling in brine. A few sweet 
varieties, however, exist, the fruit being eaten when fresh 
from the trees. 

To obtain the oil, the olives are first crushed between roll- 



SALADS 201 

ers, sufficient pressure being used to crush only the flesh, 
leaving the pits whole. They are then put into sacks made 
of grass or crash, and placed under a press. The first oil to 
come from the pulp is considered the best. The pressure 
is increased until all the oil is collected. Then cold water is 
added, and the mess again pressed. A third pressing is then 
made, using hot water. After purifying, the oil is ready 
for the market. 

The best olives for eating come from Spain; the best 
olive oil from Italy. The oil is useful in pharmacy, in the 
manufacture of soaps and for preserving sardines. The 
olive tree industry is rapidly growing in our own country, 
the Pacific slope offering one of the best olive areas in the 
world. 

America received it from the Spanish. 

Chili : here it flourishes as well as in its native home. 

Mexico and Upper California: planted by Jesuit mis- 
sionaries in the seventeenth century. 

China, Australia, Cape Colony have recently received it. 

Cotton-seed Oil. — A large amount of oil called " salad oil" 
is not olive oil, but refined cotton-seed oil. The best way to 
detect this substitution is by the odor, which is extremely 
unpleasant to most persons. The oil is not injurious. 

Mayonnaise Dressing. — 1 cup salad oil, yolk of one egg, 
dash of cayenne, ^ teaspoon salt, \ teaspoon mustard. 

Add the mustard, salt, and pepper to the egg. Beat well. 
Add oil, which has been chilled, drop by drop, stirring 
always in one direction. When it gets too thick to stir, add 
a few drops of lemon juice or vinegar, then more oil, and so 
on until all the oil has been used. The bowl should be kept 
cold. Use a wooden or silver spoon. 

If it curdles, beat up another yolk, and add slowly the 
curdled mayonnaise. 

Boiled Mayonnaise. — 2 eggs, \ pint vinegar, \ tablespoon 



202 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

mustard, \ tablespoon sugar, \ tablespoon salt, 1 pint milk, 
1 tablespoon butter. 

Add mustard, sugar, and salt to eggs and beat. Add vine- 
gar and stir well. Then add milk slowly. Put into a 
double boiler, beating occasionally to prevent it from cur- 
dling. Do not allow the water in the under dish to boil too 
vigorously. When thick, like custard, add butter cut into 
small pieces. Beat again and remove from fire. It will 
take about half an hour to thicken. 

This dressing will keep for some time in a cool place. 

Salads made with Mayonnaise. — Chicken, all fish and 
meat salads, tomato, celery, cucumber, cauliflower, egg, nut 
and fruit, beet, rice, and celery. 

Chicken and Meat Salads. — Allow half as much celery as 
meat. Cut the cold meat into dice, the celery, after scrap- 
ing and washing, also cut into small pieces. Mix the two, 
and pour over it a French dressing, and put on the ice until 
ready to serve. Mix a little mayonnaise dressing with the 
chicken or meat. Arrange the salad in a dish, pour mayon- 
naise dressing over, garnish with celery leaves and capers 
or lettuce. 

Rice Salad. — 1 cup cooked rice, 1 cup diced beet, 2 cups 
cut celery. 

Season with \ teaspoon mustard, 1 teaspoon powdered 
sugar, dash cayenne. 

Moisten with equal parts cream and vinegar. 

First Lesson 

[ Acid, minerals, oil. 

1. Food value of Salad, \ May supply that which is lack- 

l ing in the menu. 

2. Greens used for salad. 

3. Preparation of greens. 

4. French dressing. 



SALADS 203 

5. Salads made with French dressing. 

6. Preparation of one or two of these salads. 

7. Fruit salad. 

Method. — Have on the table as many of the salad greens 
as maybe obtained at this season. Take the subjects in the 
order given. Let each student prepare two lettuce leaves 
and a small piece of celery, which are to be used in making 
the salads of the lesson. 

Individual Rule for French Dressing. — 1 tablespoon oil, 2 
teaspoons vinegar, \ saltspoon salt, dash of pepper. 

Second Lesson 

1. Economy in salads. 

2. Salads made with meat, fish, or cooked vegetables. 

3. Preparation of olive oil. 

4. Mayonnaise with oil. 

5. Boiled mayonnaise. 

6. Salads made with mayonnaise. 

7. Preparation of a meat or fish salad. 

8. Preparation of a vegetable salad. 

Method. — Emphasize the variety and economy of salads ; 
also, the necessity for using only good oil, free from all un- 
pleasant odor. This should always be kept in a cool place 
to prevent it from becoming rancid after opening the bottle. 

Individual Rule for Mayonnaise Dressing. — f saltspoon 
salt, \ saltspoon pepper, ± yolk of egg, \ cup of olive oil. 

Follow directions given in large rule. 

Individual Rule for Boiled Mayonnaise. — Heat one table- 
spoonful of vinegar. Add to it \ a beaten egg, and \ tea- 
spoon salt, a few grains of pepper, and ^ teaspoon butter. 
Place in a small improvised double boiler, and stir con- 
stantly until it thickens. If it becomes curdled, beat until 
it is smooth. 

[No milk is used in the small rule.] 



204 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Chicken or Meat Salad. — Use any cold meat, preferably 
chicken or veal. Have this cut into small dice. Individual 
rule : Two rounded teaspoons meat, and one of celery. Mix 
with a little of the mayonnaise dressing. Put into a suita- 
ble dish. Pour the rest of the dressing over the top and 
garnish with celery leaves and capers. 

Rice Salad (Individual Eule). — 1 full rounded teaspoon 
cooked rice ; 1 full rounded teaspoon cooked beet, diced ; 2 
full rounded teaspoons cut celery, \ saltspoon seasoning — 
mustard, cayenne, salt, powdered sugar. Moisten with 2 
teaspoons each of cream and vinegar. 



FEBRUARY 



THE DINING EOOM 

By L. L. W. WILSON, Ph.D., 

Of the Philadelphia Normal School 

ADVANCED COUESE : BEEAD, PASTE Y, AND 

CAKE 

By Mrs. ALICE PELOUBET NORTON, A.M., 

Of the Brookline High School ; 
Lecturer at Lasell Seminary, Boston Y. W. C. A. School of Domestic Science 

and at Chautauqua, N.Y. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE DINING ROOM 

By L. L. W. WILSON, Ph.D. 

The Expert Waitress, Springsteed ; Waiting at Table, by a Member 
of the Aristocracy (English) ; What to Eat ; How to Serve It, Mrs. 
Herrick ; The Dining Room, Art Journal, vol. 31, p. 285. 

Essays of Elia, " Grace Before Meat," Charles Lamb ; Miscellaneous 
Essays, De Quincey ; Feasts of Autolycus, ed. by Elizabeth Robbins 
Pennell ; Delicate Feasting, Theodore Child ; All the Year Round, vol. 
20, pp. 104, 127 (Roman Dinners) ; Belgravia, vol. 16, p. 80 (Dining 
with a Mandarin) ; All the Year Round, vol. 67, pp. 5, 34 ; vol. 68, pp. 
78-390 ; vol. 69, pp. 79-349 ; vol. 71, p. 535 (Famous Dinners) ; Corn- 
hill Magazine, vol. 40, p. 590 (Dinners in Literature) ; Chambers's 
Journal, vol. 40, p. 367 (Uncommon Dinners) ; Blackwood, vol. 71, 
p. 734 ; Nineteenth Century, vol. 32, p. 203 ; Popular Science Monthly, 
vol. 14, p. 799 ; Living Age, vol. 165, p. 440 ; Cosmopolitan, vol. 3, 
p. 63 ; Chautauquan, vol. 23, p. 93. 

Homer : Odyssey, Dinner of Penelope's Suitors ; Illiad, Priam's 
dinner, Niobe's dinner; Plutarch's Lives (NumaPompilius), Petronius, 
Trimalchio's Banquet. This famous work has been recently translated 
by Harry Thurston Peck. Based on this famous feast are the descrip- 
tions of dinners in Bulwer's Last Days of Pompeii, Bekker's Gaelus, 
and Sienkiewicz's Quo Yadis. Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson. 
(Innumerable dinners famous for their company as well as the viands 
are here described.) Dean Swift's Conversations. Sir Walter Scott: 
Ivanhoe, Chaps. III-V; Waverley, Chap. XXIX ; Redgauntlet, Letter 
Four, Chap. XVIII (the Coronation Feast); Bride of Lammermoor, 
Chap. VII; Guy Mannering (Gypsy Cooking, Chap. XL VI and note); 
Kenilworth, Chap. XXXII (Banquet to Elizabeth) ; Talisman, Chap. 
III. Dickens : Christmas Carol (Bob Cratchit's Dinner) ; David 

207 



208 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Copperfield (Dinner to Steerf orth, Dinner to Micawber) ; Oliver Twist 
(The Workhouse Dinner, Chap. II) ; Pickwick Papers (dinners too 
numerous to mention). Thackeray: Vanity Fair, Chap. VII; The 
Newcomes, Chap. XIII (The Famous Dinner Eaten by Addison, 
Steele, and Harry Esmond) . Disraeli : Vivian Grey, the dinner eaten 
by Vivian and the Marquis of Carabas ; Lothair, dinner at Brent — 
at Mrs. Putney Giles. 

The dinners of Sir Joshua Reynolds were famous, in their own day, 
with a reputation for good company and bad serving which has reached 
to the present generation. In a different way, the dinners given by the 
poet Rogers, and those by Lady Holland at Holland House, are equally 
well known. 

Decoration of the Dining Eoom 

As Theodore Child aptly said, the best decoration for 
a dining room is a well-cooked dinner. Yet, without 
doubt, that dinner will taste all the better in a room that 
is rationally furnished, tastefully decorated, and the tem- 
perature of which is maintained at an agreeable point. 

The most famous dining room of ancient times was 
perhaps that of Lucullus, who built in it an aviary, so 
that as he ate the Roman dainty of thrushes he might, 
at the same time, feast his eyes on their living forms 
and tickle his ears with beautiful song. The revival 
of this idea in modern days, brought about, doubtless, by 
the discovery of the elaborate decorations of Pompeian 
dining rooms, in decorating the dining room with the stuffed 
skins of fish and game is even less commendable. 

A dining room should be characteristic, light and gay, 
English ideas to the contrary notwithstanding. 

One of the famous dining rooms of modern times is that 
designed by the artist Whistler for a London house. The 
walls are pale blue decorated with arabesques that recall 
the feathers of a peacock. Peacocks decorate the carved 
panels of the window-shutters, and on gilt shelves rests the 
blue and white China porcelain. One almost suspects that 



THE DINING ROOM 209 

this scheme of color and decoration was suggested by the 
dining rooms in the houses of those Chinese mandarins that 
chance to be of royal blood. For the walls of these rooms 
are hung with yellow, decorated with the dragons, and 
against these hangings rests their blue and white china. 

Particularly does the notion occur to one who looks into 
Whistler's own dining room, for his walls are hung with 
canary yellow, and the only decorations are blue and white 
china. 

Comte Mole used to change his decorations to suit his 
guests. For example, in giving a dinner to a foreign diplo- 
mat, pictures, flowers, plants, — all were such as were char- 
acteristic of the fatherland of his guest. 

Lord Lonsdale went so far as to make the color scheme 
of the room such as would best suit the complexion, hair, 
and eyes of his beautiful guests. 

Certain practical points, however, must be thoroughly 
taught before one can go even superficially into the aesthet- 
ics of the subject. 

I. The dining room is in daily use. 

II. It must be immaculately clean. 

III. It must be beautiful. 

IV. The cost of furnishing it must be within one's 
means. 

For these reasons, the furniture should be plain but good, 
the colors gay but light, and the decorations for the most 
part plants, flowers, or perhaps an aquarium, rather than 
hangings of any kind. 

A light rug is the nearest approach to a carpet that may 
be permitted. 

The necessary things for a school dining room are : — 

(1) A table, by preference round, or at least broad, 
rather than long and narrow. 

(2) Chairs. 



210 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



(3) The following china, the number in each case de- 
pending upon the number of students who will be doing 
practical work in this room at any one time : — 



1 soup tureen 
Soup plates 
Tumblers 

2 platters 
Dinner plates 

2 vegetable dishes 
1 salad dish 
Salad plates 
1 dessert dish 
Dessert plates 
Coffee cups 



Bread plates 

Sugar and cream set 

Tablespoons 

Teaspoons 

Steel knives 

Fruit knives 

Forks 

Carving set 

2 tablecloths 

lfelt 

Napkins 



The additional desirable things are : — 



A china closet 
Bread-and-butter plates 
Olive dish 

After-dinner coffee cups 
Salts and peppers 



2 carafes 
Finger bowls 
Coffee spoons 
Salad knife and fork 
Doilies 



The proper equipment of a dining room at a minimum 
cost has been discussed in the last chapter of this book. 

Method. — Discuss with the girls the use of the dining 
room, the necessity for cleanliness, and the logical conclu- 
sion with regard to (a) floor, (b) hangings, (c) ornaments. 

Tell them of various original and beautiful decorations. 
Let them suggest others, but in the end choose something 
quite plain for the school dining room. 

Let them make lists of needed articles, and keep these 
lists for comparison with similar lists made after they have 
studied the room. 



THE DINING ROOM 211 

In the skeleton menus, given later, an effort has been 
made to present something practical, that shall represent 
what should exist in the average American family. If, 
however, the teacher's work lies with poorer people, she 
must adapt herself to the circumstances. 

We have tried always to indicate specifically under each 
section how this may be done; but the matter is of so 
much importance that too much emphasis cannot be laid 
upon it. 

Related Reading, Language, and Spelling Lessons 

The menus, plans for setting the table, lists of dishes, 
order for serving and for cleaning already suggested will 
give abundant training in written language. 

The references to general literature will suggest innu- 
merable possibilities for oral language, and the " Reader 
in Domestic Science" gives varied and abundant reading 
matter with reference to various historical dinners, and the 
habits and customs of other nations and ages. 

Breakfast 

Facts. — The usual and average American breakfast 
consists of: — 

Fruit 

Cereal, Cream, or Warm Milk 

Meat, or Eggs Potatoes 

Bread and Butter Milk 

[Hot Bread Coffee] 

This should be served in the four courses indicated. 
That this meal shall be served and eaten properly, 
attention must be given to the following points : — 



212 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

(1) The care of the dining room before breakfast. 

(2) The setting of the table, side table, and sideboard. 

(3) Preparation of bread, butter, and water. 

(4) Serving the meal. 

Care of the Dining Eoom before Breakfast 

The room must be aired, put to rights, and dusted. 

Except in the coldest weather, give the dining room a 
thorough airing, by opening the windows both at the top 
and at the bottom. The length of time during which the 
windows should be open depends entirely upon the tem- 
perature, and this can be accurately judged only by a 
thermometer. The optimum temperature is 68° F., since 
the occupants will be sitting quietly, and not at work. 

Brush up the rug. Wipe the floor with a damp cloth, or 
dust mop, if it needs it. 

With a cheese-cloth duster, dust carefully the table, 
chairs, side table, sideboard, window ledges, shaking the 
duster out of doors at the necessary intervals. 

See that the mirrors, glass doors, and picture glasses are 
clean. 

See that each article of furniture is in its proper place, 
and at its proper angle. • 

In setting the table, cover it first with a cover of double 
Canton flannel or felt. This protects the polished surface 
from hot dishes, and also makes even a handsome cloth 
look handsomer. 

Over this, spread the table-cloth. The long middle 
crease must divide the table exactly in half. 

Put for each person, a fruit plate, covered with a doily, 
on which rests a finger bowl, one-third full of water. See 
that each plate is symmetrically placed, both with reference 
to the table as a whole, and each of the other plates. At 
the right of each plate, place a silver fruit knife, with its 



THE DINING ROOM 213 

edge toward the plate. If a spoon is needed, put it to the 
left, with the bowl up. 

Two tumblers should be placed at the right, and a bread- 
and-butter plate at the left. 

On the right, again, put the breakfast knife and cereal 
spoon, and to the left, the fork, with the tines turned up, 
and the napkin. 

Between the places for two people, place a saltcellar and 
spoon and a pepper, or put the salts and pepper at the top 
of each plate. 

At the foot of the table, lay the carving cloth. 

Put the carving knife and spoon to the right, and the 
fork to the left, of course, with the sharp edge of the knife 
facing the centre, and the bowl of the spoon and the tines 
of the fork up. 

The carving knife must be sharpened with the steel each 
time before using it. 

At the head of the table, place symmetrically, cups and 
saucers, sugar, cream, and a rest for the coffee-pot. This 
rest is to save the table from the heat, and should be made 
of the same material as the pot, china or silver, as the case 
may be. 

In setting the side table, place on it the silver tray, a 
small napkin, a large napkin, leaving plenty of room for 
hot dishes and mats or trays to keep them from injuring 
the polish of the wood. 

On the sideboard, put extra plates, knives, forks, spoons, 
tumblers, a bowl of granulated or powdered sugar for the 
cereal, a pitcher of cream, and a pitcher of water if carafes 
are not used. 

Carafes are very desirable. In them the water may be 
sufficiently chilled to be agreeable, and yet not so much so 
as to interfere with digestion, provided they are put in the 
refrigerator over night. They save the waitress's time, a 



214 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

very important matter, if the family is of any size. More- 
over, they add to the appearance of the table. 

See that the chairs are properly placed, that the doors 
and drawers are all shut, and that the newspapers are 
where they belong, probably at the right of the foot of the 
table, the seat of the master of the house. 

Just before breakfast is ready to be served, place in the 
centre of the table the fruit. This should be clean and 
cool in reality as well as in appearance. It looks best in 
glass, and with no decoration except, perhaps, a few of its 
own leaves. 

Put the butter and the bread on the table. 

The most economical method of serving bread is to put 
the whole loaf on the bread board, and cut from it only 
what is needed. Because it is the less wasteful, it is the 
best way ; but the waitress usually thinks differently, and 
prefers to cut a number of slices, several of which are sure 
to be unused, and too dry for anything except the bread- 
crumb jar. 

Whichever method is pursued, the outer, stale slice (if 
the loaf is not fresh) must be removed, and only freshly 
cut bread used. 

Last of all, pour the water into the tumblers. 

When the family are seated, each removes from her fruit 
plate the doily and finger bowl, and spreads her napkin. 

The waitress should place the fruit on the silver tray, 
and pass it to the mistress of the house, standing at her 
left. It is then passed to each person in turn, in the 
same way. 

There is great difference of opinion and custom with 
regard to the order of serving when guests are present. 
The simplest way is that indicated; first, to the hostess, 
passing around to her right-hand guest, and serving the 
others in turn. Tor a large company, this is obviously the 



THE DINING ROOM 215 

best way; but when there are only a few present, many 
prefer to have the waitress serve, first the hostess, and then 
the other ladies at the table, before serving the gentlemen, 
regardless of the zigzagging often necessitated by this rule. 

While the fruit is being eaten, replenish the water 
glasses. 

Eemove the fruit course as follows : First, the fruit 
dish, placing it on the side table; then the individual 
plates, each with its bowl, knife, and spoon, carrying them 
to the pantry. 

Bring in the cereal. 

This may be served by the mistress. In this case, set 
before her the individual dishes, with the tablespoon. 
Eemove the cover to the side table. As she serves it, put 
the saucer on the tray, together with the sugar and cream 
from the sideboard, and pass it to each in turn. Or the 
individual dishes may be passed first, then the cereal, and 
then the cream and sugar. 

Eemove the cereal course as follows : First, the dish, 
placing it on the side table, covering it, and then each of 
the individual plates, in turn, until all are removed to the 
pantry. 

For the next course, bring in the warm plates, putting 
them before the master of the house. Then put before him 
the platter, and on the sideboard the potatoes. When he 
carves a portion, place the plate with it on before the 
person for whom it was intended, standing at her right. 

Uncover the potatoes, place a tablespoon in the dish, 
pass them. 

Pass bread and butter. 

Eeplenish the water. 

Bring in the coffee-pot. 

As the mistress of the house prepares the cup, set it 
down to the right of the person for whom it is intended, or 



216 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

else pass, first, the coffee in a cup, and then the cream and 
sugar. 

After breakfast, the food must be put away and the 
dishes removed. 

Have a definite place for putting each of the following 
sets of dishes as they come from the dining room : heavy 
china, lighter china, glass, silver knives. The separate 
silver and knife pitchers are a great convenience. 

Every particle of food that can be used again should be 
put away in its proper receptacle in the kitchen. Gravy, 
even so small a quantity as a spoonful of any vegetable, 
dressing from a roast, bones, should all be saved. They 
may be put in one receptacle, for the combination will 
make an excellent soup for lunch. Bread should be kept 
by itself, and, of course, meat and any vegetable of which 
there is a sufficient quantity for a second serving should 
each have its own place. It need hardly be said, that none 
of the dining room dishes should ever be found in the 
refrigerator. 

After the food has been put away, empty every glass, 
cup, and pitcher. Pill the milk and cream pitchers with 
cold water. 

Scrape the plates and other dishes carefully. Eemember 
that a crust of bread cleans more effectually, and with less 
danger of scratching, than either a knife or a spoon. 

A crockery or agate-ware bowl should be kept in a 
definite place to serve as a temporary receptacle for these 
scraps. Tin will not answer the purpose, because it will 
not long remain clean, since a bit of lemon or tomato will 
quickly rust it. 

For washing dishes, the following articles are necessary : 
clean sink, dishpan, hot water, soap, soap shaker, Bath brick 
dust, board, cork and cloth, mop, dish drainer, dry towels, 
ammonia. 



THE DINIXG ROOM 217 

See that there will be plenty of room to place the dishes 
after they are washed. 

Make hot suds in the pan. Eemove the soap. 

Wash the glass first, then the finer, lighter china. Wash 
quickly, set each set on the drainer, and dry thoroughly 
with towel. Put each set, as they are dried, in exactly the 
place left vacant for them. 

Pour out the now cool water. 

Make more hot suds, removing the soap. 

Wash the silver. Place it on the drainer, pouring over 
it a pitcher of hot water. Dry quickly, and put it in its 
appointed permanent place, lest it be spattered with wet 
from the other washing. 

If the water is still hot, wash in the same way the plates 
and other dishes, putting in only one kind at a time. 
These may be placed in turn on the drainer ; but the clean 
water poured over them must not be too hot, or the finer 
china will be cracked, and its glaze gradually destroyed. 

Be careful to wash thoroughly the insides of pitchers. 
After the milk pitchers are washed, it is a good plan to 
pour into them boiling water, and let them stand until all 
the other dishes have been dried. 

Now for the knives. Their handles must never touch 
water. For this reason, the tin pitchers that come for this 
purpose are a great convenience ; for in them the knives 
may be placed from the beginning, handles up. 

In washing them, hold the handles in the left hand, and 
wash with the right. Then let the blades rest fiat on the 
scouring board. Dip a cork or cloth in water, and then in 
powdered Bath brick, rubbing the steel until all stains are 
removed. Dry the knives with dry brick-dust, wipe with a 
soft cloth, and put them in the permanent place at once. 

Put away all the dishes. 

Pour out the last dish-water. 



218 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Put into the dislipan plenty of very hot water. To this 
add a little ammonia. Wash in it all the dish towels and 
hang them out in the air to dry. 

See care of the sink in the section on cleaning in the 
chapter on The Kitchen. 

Clean the table. 

Sweep the floor. 

Eeturn to the dining room. 

Air it, and, while the windows are open, remove the 
crumbs from the cloth, fold it in the old crease, put it 
and the napkins away. 

Brush up the rug. 

Class-room Lesson 

Method. — Why do we eat in the dining room rather than 
our own bedrooms ? How can we be sure that the air is suf- 
ficiently fresh ? What else is important besides fresh air ? 
What must we do in order to be sure that the dining room is 
clean ? What else is necessary besides fresh air and clean- 
liness ? How shall we secure order ? 

What is the use of a table-cloth? Is it thick enough? 
What can we do to make it thicker ? 

What dishes shall we put on the table ? 

Since this obviously depends on the food to be served, 
discuss with the students the question of breakfast dishes 
and courses. 

Find out from the students their usual breakfast. The 
safest way to do this is to ask them to write for you, the day 
before, just what they had for breakfast on that day. This 
gives you the opportunity quietly to put yourself in 
touch with their mode of living and adapt your ideas to it. 
It will save you perhaps from riding rough shod over their 
prejudices and habits, and, better still, show you the easiest 
place for the entering wedge of something better. 



THE DINING ROOM 219 

If, for example, they belong to the poorer and poorest 
class in the city, it would be absurd to urge fruit and finger 
bowls, but worth a great deal to recommend a glass of water 
for a first course. 

The cereals, however, should be urged upon them, for 
they are cheap, nourishing, easily prepared. 

The third course will be given by all pupils. And from 
the hygienic point of view, since they are children and not 
adults, it is to be hoped that hot bread and coffee will be 
omitted by all. Nevertheless, they should be taught the 
proper serving of these articles of diet too. 

Put on the board a general menu on the plan of the one 
at the head of this section,- the best under the circumstances 
to which your pupils can aspire. Get from them the reasons 
for including each article. (See chapter on Foods). Let 
them name various cereals, various possible, meat and egg 
dishes. 

Then substitute for the word cereal, a cereal, and the 
meat or egg dish, a meat dish or eggs prepared in some 
particular style. 

What dishes shall we need to serve each of these ? 
Where shall we place them ? Why ? How ? Why ? 

Obviously the answers to these questions depend largely 
upon the class of children. If no servant is kept in their 
homes, it is of doubtful utility to urge courses. On the 
contrary, everything should be within reach and the number 
of dishes reduced to a minimum; but with even one servant, 
there is no reason why all meals should not be properly 
served. 

As a summary of the lesson, put on the board 

Care of the dining room before breakfast : — 

1. Fresh air. 

2. Optimum temperature. 

3. Cleanliness. 



220 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

4. Order. 

Menu. 

List of dishes required for serving : — 

China, glass, silver. 

Kequire the students to bring in these skeletons filled out. 

For the practical work the ideal method is, of course, 
to give each student the opportunity to do each part of the 
work herself. The grade teacher has the advantage over 
the special teacher in that she is there with the class all 
day, and that she can send one and another to the dining 
room, to do this, that, and the other thing at convenient 
times to herself. She can take a moment for inspection — 
if she is a good housekeeper — and then, having the dishes 
replaced, begin all over again. But even the grade teacher 
will find it necessary to double up to a greater or less 
extent. Two girls can work to advantage at one time, and 
two more can criticise and perhaps improve upon the same 
work. 

If it is a possible thing, however, have all the children, 
at one time or another, eat at least one meal under your 
supervision. 

A capable teachex, who has her class well in hand, could 
supervise four cooks, three waitresses, twelve guests, using 
the rest of the class perhaps as assistant critics, requiring 
them to make notes, and discussing the matter with the 
entire class afterward. 

Still, I am willing to admit that the question of sufficient 
practice in an ordinary grade school is difficult to manage, 
and the teacher must remember that the principles involved 
are after all equally important, and bring to their evolution 
and the subsequent necessary drill upon them all the re- 
sources that she employs in teaching other subjects. 

1. Develop the principle, using the blackboards freely. 

2. Apply these principles practically. 



THE DINING ROOM 221 

3. Be sure that both principles and applications are 
clearly denned in the child's mind. 

4. Make a summary and require the children to give back 
to you the details which you have given them, or better still, 
not the same but similar details, coming from their own 
experience. 

5. Practice under criticism. 

6. Practice after criticism. 

7. Practice in their homes. 

Although dish-washing has been taught and practised in 
connection with cooking, yet these lessons on the dining 
room give the opportunity for a clearer understanding of 
the principles involved. 

Class-room Lesson 

What objection to putting the dishes as they come from 
the dining room in any order ? Which dishes should be 
placed together ? Why ? Before the dishes are washed 
what must be cared for ? How ? Why ? Why must the 
scrap bowl be of earthenware, or agate ware ? What is 
agate ware ? Its advantages, disadvantages, over crockery ? 

What things will be needed to wash the crockery, the 
glass, the silver, steel, dish-cloths ? Why ? 

Which will you wash first ? Why ? How ? Where 
will you put each article washed ? Why ? 

Why must the handles of steel knives never be placed in 
water ? Why is brick-dust used in cleaning them ? 

What must be clone to leave the dining room in order ? 

Why must the dining room again be aired ? What else 
must be done before you leave it? Why? 



222 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Dinner 

Facts. — The usual and average American dinner consists 

of: — 

Soup Celery 

Joint Potatoes, one other Vegetable 

Salad Crackers and Cheese 

Dessert 

Coffee 

This should be served in the five courses indicated. 
Attention must be given to the following points : — 

(1) The care of the dining room before dinner. 

(2) The setting of the table, side table, and sideboard. 

(3) Preparation of relishes, bread, water. 

(4) Serving the meal. 

Be sure that the air of the dining room is fresh and that 
the temperature is sufficiently low. If the dinner is served 
at night, by all means have the temperature below 68° F., for 
the lighting of lamps and gas will certainly raise it quickly, 
particularly if the room is small. 

The room ought to be in order from the care given it after 
breakfast. See, however, that this is the case. 

In setting the table, follow the directions given for break- 
fast, except, of course, that no fruit plate, knife, or spoons 
are to be placed on the table, nor is the coffee service to be 
put at the head of the table. 

For the simple dinner indicated above, only a soup spoon, 
two forks, and a dinner knife, together with napkin, glass, 
salt, and pepper should be put at each place. The same 
rules obtain for their position at dinner as at breakfast, viz., 
spoon, knife, tumbler at the right ; forks and napkin at the 
left. Put the soup ladle at the place of the mistress. 



THE DINING ROOM 223 

In the middle of the table, instead of a bowl of fruit, put 
a glass of flowers or a growing plant. 

See that the sideboard is in perfect order, (1) in regard to 
its cover, (2) in regard to the position and condition of its 
more or less permanent articles. 

For serving the dinner, be sure that the following articles 
are clean and in good condition : — 

(1) Extra glasses, knives, forks, and spoons for an emer- 
gency. 

(2) The dessert plates and forks. If fruit is served, then 
each plate should be provided also with a doily and finger 
bowl, as indicated for breakfast. 

(3) After-dinner coffee cups and saucers, spoons, small 
bowl of cut sugar, a small cream jug, and crackers and 
cheese, ready to serve. 

On the side table place the carving knife and fork, salad 
plates, tablespoons, sauce ladles. Leave plenty of room for 
the vegetable dishes and gravy dish. 

Take into the kitchen the soup plates, dinner plates, soup 
tureen, meat platter, vegetable dishes, placing them on the 
shelf above the stove. Care must be exercised, especially 
with fine china, not to put them where they will get too hot, 
for this will quickly crack the glaze. Without doubt, the 
best way to heat them is by passing them through warm 
water. 

Put the salad bowl in the refrigerator, in which place also 
the olive dishes. Salted almonds, if used, may be placed on 
the table at once. 

Put on each napkin, or if in its folds, still sufficiently out 
that it may be seen, a piece of bread cut into a slice about 
three inches thick and deep and four inches long, or else 
the regular dinner roll. Put reserve bread in a bread dish 
on the sideboard. 

Put on the olives. Place the soup tureen and the hot 



224 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

plates at the head of the table, pour the water, and announce 
the dinner by saying quietly, "Dinner is served." 

After all are seated, remove the cover of the soup tureen, 
placing it on the side table. 

As the soup is ladled out, from the left side take the soup 
plate and place it before whoever sits at the right of the mis- 
tress, standing while doing so on the right side. After all 
have been served, cover the tureen. 

Pass the celery. 

Eeplenish water glasses if this is necessary. 

When all have finished the soup, remove the tureen. 

Go to the right and remove each plate separately. 

Place the roast before the carver, and the vegetables on 
the side table. 

Put the gravy spoon and carving knife at the right, and 
the knife and the fork at the left. 

Serve the meat in the manner suggested for the meat at 
breakfast. 

Put a spoon in the potato dish and offer it on the tray at 
the left of each person, beginning with the mistress and 
passing to her right. 

Serve the other vegetables in the same way. Nowadays 
vegetables are cooked dry enough to be placed on the dinner 
plates, dispensing almost altogether with the small dishes 
formerly used for vegetables. 

Pass the gravy boat and spoon. 

Pass olives. 

Eeplenish water, and pass the bread to those who have 
none. 

When all have finished, take the carving knife, fork, and 
spoon to the kitchen on tray ; remove the roast. Then take 
off the plates, one in each hand. 

Bring in the salad bowl, first putting in it the salad knife 
and fork, and place it before the mistress. 



THE DINING BOOM 225 

Serve as directed for the meat course. 

Pass the crackers and cheese. 

Eemove this course in the following order : salad bowl, 
salad plates, tumblers, olives, all by hand. Put the pepper, 
salt, etc., on the tray. 

Eemove the carving cloth, by turning the corners to- 
gether and placing it on the tray. 

Eemove with a crumb scraper all crumbs, bits of bread, 
etc. 

Bring in the dessert to the mistress and serve as indicated 
for the salad. 

If fruit is to be served, see directions for breakfast fruit. 

A cup of coffee may be put at the right of each person, 
and cream and sugar passed at his left, or the coffee service 
may be carried into the parlor, or the dessert may be re- 
moved, and the coffee served as indicated for breakfast. 

The directions for washing dishes have been given under 
breakfast. 

Cut glass is of course not a part of the school outfit, yet 
direction for its care should certainly be given with the 
washing of the dinner dishes. 

Cut glass may be most easily washed in warm water to 
which a little ammonia has been added. Use a soft brush 
— one comes for the purpose — to clean it thoroughly, and 
as it is wiped place it on a towel, or better still, in a bed of 
box or basswood sawdust. Pine sawdust will not do, be- 
cause of the rosin which it contains, which will stick to the 
glass. 

When the glass is removed from the sawdust, or from the 
towel, polish it with a soft cloth. 

This is, of course, the simplest of dinners. To make it 
more elaborate, add raw oysters or clams on the half shell 
at the beginning, and fish after the soup. 
Q 



226 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Oysters should be served on top of a bed of finely cracked 
ice, and not covered with it. They should be put before 
each place just before dinner is announced. Pass at once 
to the left of the hostess and then from her right, a tray on 
which quarter lemons, horse-radish, red pepper, and crackers 
have been arranged. 

Fish is served with a sauce, and sometimes with cucum- 
bers, and sometimes with potatoes. 

Each of these courses necessitates an extra fork. These 
may be placed on the table when it is set, but it is more 
usual nowadays to place at each place at the most two 
forks, and to put the others on just before bringing in the 
later courses. 

If a still more elaborate dinner is required, it is usual to 
insert an entree after the fish, and to put game or perhaps 
another entree after the roast, preceding this often with a 
sherbet. This particularly American custom of introducing 
a half-frozen dish into the middle of the dinner amuses the 
epicures on the other side of the water. 

"Why do you do it?" they say. And the only answer 
there has ever been given them is the decidedly fatuous 
reply : _ 

" Oh, to enable us to go on ! " 

And thus do we make a labor of our pleasures, and, in 
passing, ruin the digestion. 

But with such dinners as these, we, as teachers, are not 
concerned. 

Method. — Make use of the facts given with chapter on 
Foods to give the children the key to the making of 
menus. 

Have clearly in your own mind, not an ideal dinner, but 
the best to which you can hope to train the children. 

Put on the board the skeleton menu. Allow them to 
suggest other dishes that might be substituted. Lay em- 



THE DINING ROOM 227 

phasis on the relative food values, but do not forget at the 
same time the necessity for variety. 

Let the children make out menus for spring, for summer, 
for autumn, and for winter. 

What dishes are needed for each course? Where shall 
we put them ? Why ? How ? 

Let each girl prepare a menu, a list of the dishes for 
serving it, a plan for the setting of the table ; also a 
plan for the setting of the side table and the sideboard, if 
these are to be considered. 

Give them all the experience in practical work possible. 
See also the section on " Breakfast." 

The Third Meal 

Facts. — When the dinner is served at night, luncheon 
will be eaten in the middle of the day ; but with the mid- 
day dinner an evening supper is the rule. 

Luncheon or Supper 

These are the family meals in which " left-overs" are 
usually consumed, and are therefore very variable in their 
content. 

The following menu is the average perhaps : — 

Meat dish Potatoes, another Vegetable 

Bread and Bntter 

Fruit and Dessert 

Cocoa or Tea 

The care of the room previous to luncheon has already 
been given. 

Set the table as for breakfast, except that fruit dish, 
plates, knives, and spoons should be on the sideboard. 

Put flowers or a plant in the middle of the table. 



228 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Prepare olives or pickles. The olives must be kept in 
the refrigerator until the last moment, but this is not 
necessary with pickles. 

Serve precisely as indicated for the same courses in the 
section on breakfast and dinner. 

Method. — It seems scarcely worth while to make more 
than a class-room lesson of these meals. The principles 
have been taught in the lessons on breakfast and dinner. 

By all means, however, discuss these meals from the point 
of view of foods (see chapter on Foods), and let the students 
make menus subject to your criticism and direction. 

It is an excellent plan to have faulty menus put on the 
board and criticised with reasons by the children them- 
selves. 

Weekly Cleaning 

Facts. — Utensils Needed. Cheese-cloth dusters, brushes, 
feather duster, covers, broom, flannel or cotton flannel, car- 
pet beaters, soap, ammonia, newspapers, turpentine or coal 
oil. 

Clean the chairs, and take them out of the room, 

If there is carving on them, a brush must be used. Then 
rub with a soft cloth. Leather may be washed with a cloth 
wrung out of hot milk. Eub until dry. 

Eoll up the rug. Take it out in the yard and hang it up 
on the line, — not by one corner only, since this will cause it 
to ravel later. 

Put all the dishes from the sideboard and ornaments 
from the mantel on a paper which covers the table. Cover 
them. 

Deftly shake out and tie back the hangings. 

Open the windows. Shut all drawers and doors. 

Dust the frames of the pictures. Brush the backs with 
a coarse brush. 



THE DINING ROOM 229 

Dust the tops of curtain poles and of mouldings. 

Cover the pictures with unbleached muslin kept for the 
purpose. 

Brush the dust from the corners of the window-sills. 
Wipe with a cheese-cloth duster. 

Shake the duster out-of-doors. 

Cover the broom with clean flannel or cotton flannel. 
Brush down the walls. 

Wipe up the floor with a damp cloth. This may be tied 
around a broom. 

When it is perfectly dry, rub it over with a very small 
quantity of coal oil or turpentine, which may be applied by 
hand, using clean cotton waste, or by putting it on a clean 
cloth tied over the broom. 

For directions for cleaning windows see the section on 
"Cleansing," in the chapter on The Kitchen. 

Clean in the same way mirrors and glass doors. 

With carpet beaters, give the rug a thorough cleaning. 

Belay the rug. 

Dust the room thoroughly. 

Shake all dusters out-of-doors. 

Bring back the chairs. 

Dust and replace the ornaments. 

Bemove covers. 

Look over all the furniture, the woodwork, the hangings. 
See that everything is whole and in good order. 

Wash all cloths in soap-suds with a little ammonia added 
to it. Hang them in the air to dry. 

Clean brushes and hang them up. 

Brasses and Silver. — These must be cleaned in the kitchen. 
The commercial preparations for cleaning brass all contain 
an acid. If this is not neutralized or removed, the metal 
will quickly tarnish. Therefore, after cleaning rub the 
articles thoroughly with whiting. See also the section on 



230 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

"Cleaning/' in the chapter on The Kitchen. Except in a 
moist climate, brass once properly cleaned will keep clean 
for a long time. 

For the weekly cleaning of silver only hot water to which 
a little ammonia has been added, and soft cloths or a 
chamois for drying and polishing, are necessary. Whiting 
should not be used oftener than once a month. For this 
monthly cleaning cover the table with newspapers. Wash 
the silver in hot suds and dry it thoroughly. 

Put some whiting in a saucer, mixing it to a paste with 
dilute ammonia. Kub this mixture on the articles to be 
cleaned, with a soft cloth. 

Put each on the paper to dry. 

When perfectly dry rub off the whiting with a clean, 
soft cloth, using a soft brush for the chasing, and the 
chamois for the final polish. If the silver is properly 
washed and dried each day, it will seldom be necessary to 
clean it. 

Method. — Will the daily cleaning and airing of the din- 
ing room keep it in good order ? Why not ? 

In cleaning a room what must be shut? What open? 
Why? • 

What would you do first ? Why ? 

What utensils will you need for this ? (Put on the black- 
board the word Utensils, and write under the articles given.) 

What next? Why? 

Continue in this fashion until the process, its order, with 
reasons and utensils, have all been given. 

Give the children practice, under criticism, if possible. 

After some practice, require them to make a list of the 
order of cleaning and of the utensils necessary. 



THE DINING ROOM 231 



Table Manners 



There are three ways to teach the subject : — 

(1) By example. 

(2) By precept. 

(3) By eternal vigilance. 

And all three ways must be employed to accomplish the 
object indicated, viz., automatic good breeding, based on 
quick intelligence and a kindly heart. 

Obviously the grade teacher has comparatively small 
opportunity to do this work, but she can make a beginning, 
which most mothers will gladly supplement, or she may in 
her teaching supplement what many mothers have already 
begun. 

Let her establish in conversation that the basis of good 
manners is deference to the comfort of others. Then make 
these facts clear to all : — 

Consideration of others' demands on the part of the child. 

(1) That she should offend neither the eye nor the ear. 

Therefore, she must be (a) scrupulously clean; (b) erect 
in her bearing, neither lolling against the chair nor resting 
her elbows on the table; and (c) above all eat quietly and 
slowly. 

In this connection the following details of customary 
etiquette may be taught : — 

Spread the napkin across the lap, do not tuck it in at 
the neck. 

Drink from the side of all spoons, never from the front. 

Soup should be swallowed quietly from the side, and not 
the end of the spoon. 

Do not tip the soup plate. 

Break bread into a smaller piece. Do not bite mouthfuls 
from it. 

Do not play with either the food or the table utensils. 



232 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Wipe the lips before drinking. 

(2) That she should lighten the duties of the carver. 
Therefore, she must (a) promptly indicate her preference 

for any particular cut, if he asks her to do so, and (b) help 
herself promptly to dishes that are passed her. 

(3) That she should so manage all small details that the 
possibility of accident is reduced to a minimum. Therefore, 

(a) In sending a plate back for a second helping she 
should put the knife and fork straight on the plate, and a 
little to one side. This will give room for the food, and 
obviate the possibility of their slipping from the plate. 

(b) The spoon must never be left in the cup, but placed 
on the saucer. 

(c) The soup spoon should be filled by moving it away 
from the person. 

(4) That as host or hostess she should endeavor to make 
all others comfortable. 

Therefore, in a family each should remember the tastes 
of the other members, and give to each the cut of meat, the 
amount of sugar and cream preferred by each, without ask- 
ing. In the case of guests, it is of course necessary to 
ask. 

With regard to passing things at the table, consideration 
of the comfort of others demands that if there is a waitress 
nothing whatever should be passed by any member of the 
family. If there is no waitress, however, then with each 
dish one must think of the possible wants of her neighbor, 
and see that these are satisfied. 

In the latter case some little courtesy of expression is 
necessary in offering your service. Instead of saying 
abruptly, " Will you have the salt," for example, the phrase 
may be softened into "Let me pass you the salt," or "Allow 
me," or " May I," etc. 

Plants and Flowers. — The dining room ought to be a 



THE DINING ROOM 233 

bright, sunny room. If it be so, by all means raise a few 
plants. 

The cheapest house plants are geraniums. In the houses 
of the well-to-do they need intelligent care, but, as doubtless 
others have observed, in the houses of the poor they flour- 
ish in tin cans, and under what seems to be unfavorable 
conditions. 

The secret of this, it seems to me, is that the houses of 
the poor are, perforce, cool to cold, and the geranium, like 
most plants, cannot endure hot, dry air. Neither can we, 
only we will not believe it. 

The maximum temperature produced by artificial heat 
should be 68° F. for ordinarily healthy people. 

Geraniums intended for house blooming should be pre- 
pared for it during the summer. To do this, follow the 
following simple rules: — 

(1) Keep them in their pots. 

(2) As soon as they are five inches high, pinch off the 
top, thus forcing them to develop side buds, and thus mak- 
ing compact, bushy plants. Keep up the pinching process 
until the shape of the plant suits you. 

When you are satisfied with the plant, withdraw its 
supply of water, giving it only enough to keep it from 
drying up. 

Kemove every bud. 

These last two things give the plant the rest that it 
needs, so that it can work hard during the winter. 

Before bringing them into the house repot them. This is 
done by shaking the plants out of the pot, shaking off as 
much soil as possible, repotting in fresh, rich soil, with 
plenty of broken crock in the bottom for drainage, and 
watering them thoroughly. 

The pots should be small. Otherwise the plants will run 
to roots and foliage, and will not bloom. 



234 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Leave them out-of-doors as long as possible. 

When you bring them in, put them in the sunniest 
window of the coolest room. 

Shower the leaves with a hand sprinkler, or by simply 
holding the foliage under a spigot, breaking the force of the 
fall, and at the same time scattering the water with the 
hand. 

Do not water the earth too frequently. Wait until the 
surface is dry, and then give the plant a thorough wetting. 
The water should run through to the saucer. 

About once a week give them some of the numerous 
ammoniacal plant foods. I have used Bowker's with great 
success ; presumably the others are equally good. 

The best geraniums for blooming are the zonias, or bud- 
ding geraniums, of which the species are very numerous. 

The double ivy-leaf geraniums are very beautiful, but the 
other fancy kinds are not very good for house plants, par- 
ticularly for the amateur. 

If your windows are not sunny, probably begonias will 
flourish best of all the flowering plants. 

Give them plenty of plant food. If they drop their 
leaves, it is either because the room is too hot and dry for 
them, or because they are watered too much. 

The easiest plants of all to care for, and, in the long run, 
the most satisfactory, if one does not expect bloom, are : — 

Aspidistras, excellent plants of which may be bought from 
fifty cents to a dollar. 

Eubber plants, costing from fifty cents to a dollar and a 
half, for small to medium specimens. 

Pandanus (screw pines), costing about the same as the 
rubber plants. 

Palms, which, however, cost considerably more, two dol- 
lars being about the minimum cost of a medium sized plant. 
The palms most useful for the house are the Kentias, 



THE DINING ROOM 235 

Phoenixes (date palms), Latania (fan palm), Cococos (cocoa- 
nut palm), and Areca. Of these, the best species for the 
purpose are, perhaps, Kentia belmoreana, Phoenix reclinata 
and sylvestriSy Latania borbonica, Cocos weddeliana, Areca 
lutescens. 

But the very best species of palms need more care than 
the plants mentioned before them. Their leaves must be 
kept clean by sponging them, they must get fresh air, and 
be shielded from the gas. 

Cycads are among the best house plants, but their cost 
(from five to ten dollars for a medium size) makes it scarcely 
worth while to discuss them here. 

Flowers, like plants, need a cool atmosphere. 

Strip the leaves from the part of the stem under water. 
Cut off the ends of the stems, for an inch or so, every day, 
and do the cutting under water, so that the cut surface will 
not become full of air. Change the water every day. Keep 
them in a cold room, except when they are needed for the 
table. 

Flowers so cared for should last at least a week. 

An aquarium may be an ornament to the dining room. 

Method. — In these days, every schoolroom is provided 
with plants and flowers. The most efficient way to teach 
children to care for them is to let each, in turn, take care 
of those in the school, after definite directions from you, 
and under your careful supervision. 

Lamps 

Since lamps are a necessity in some parts of the country 
and considered ornamental in others, it will be well for the 
teacher to give a lesson on their care. 

Cleanliness is the first essential, of course. Since we are 
dealing with oil, this can only be secured by strict attention 
to the following rules : — 



236 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

I. Saturate the part of the new wick which is just above 
the burner ; put the burner in the clean, empty lamp. Light 
the wick, and put on the chimney. Open the window, 
so that there is no draft on the chimney, and let the oil 
burn out. Eub the wick even with a bit of soft paper, but 
be careful to see that none of the charred bits are on the 
burner. 

II. Fill the lamp carefully. Wipe the burner and other 
parts of the lamp. See that the chimney is clean. Light 
the lamp, keeping the flame low until the burner is heated. 
Then turn it up as high as possible. 

III. Blow out the light. 

IV. Turn the wick down, so that the oil will not ooze out 
at the top. 

V. Boil the burners, when they become very oily, in 
water in which washing soda has been dissolved — a tea- 
spoonful to the quart is the usual rule. 

VI. Mica chimneys are more expensive than glass, but 
they are also less fragile. They will never break, but they 
scratch easily. If glass chimneys are used, put them into 
cold water, and bring it slowly to a boil. Then let them 
slowly cool. This tempers the glass, so that it is much less 
likely to crack. 

Method. — In what respect are lamps difficult to keep 
clean ? 

How shall we (a) prevent and (b) cure this oiliness ? 

Why will soda clean the burners ? See section on " Clean- 
ing," in the chapter on The Kitchen. 



CHAPTER X — (Advanced Course) 

BREAD, CAKE, AND PASTRY 

By Mrs. ALICE PELOUBET NORTON, A.M., 

Graduate of Smith College and of the Boston Normal School of Household 
Arts ; Lecturer at Lasell Seminary, and at the Y. W. C. A. School of 
Domestic Science, Boston; Teacher of Domestic Science in the Brookline 
High School. 

" Here is bread which strengthens man's heart, and therefore is 
called the staff of life." — Matthew Henry's " Commentaries. " 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

One of the best books to be consulted by the teacher on the general 
subject of bread, especially with reference to its composition, digesti- 
bility, and food value is The Dietetic Value of Bread, by Goodfellow 
(Macmillan & Co.). An excellent statement of the chemical processes 
involved in breadmaking is to be found in The Chemistry of Cooking 
and Cleaning, by Mrs. Richards and Miss Elliott, (Home Science Pub. 
Co.), pp. 27-42, 52, 54. Food, by A. H. Church, is a standard author- 
ity (Chapman & Hall). The Chemistry of Cookery, by Matthieu 
Williams, is suggestive and interesting (Appleton & Co.). Practical, 
Sanitary, and Economic Cooking (the Lamb Prize Essay), by Mrs. 
Abel, should be read from beginning to end; pp. 91-106 discuss 
bread. An account of the commercial preparation of yeast may be 
found in Chemistry in Daily Life, by Lassar-Cohn (Lippincott Co.), 
pp. 87, 96, 108. A concise statement of the main facts regarding 
yeast and fermentation may be found in pp. 184-200 of Sedgwick 
and Wilson's General Biology (H. Holt & Co.). The Science and Art 
of Bread Making, by William Jago, is an exhaustive and scientific 
treatise on the subject (Simpkin, Marshall, & Co.). 

Two pamphlets published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
are : The Carbohydrates of Wheat, Maize, Flour, and Bread, Bulletin 
No. 34, and Food and Nutrition Investigations in New Jersey, Bulletin 
No. 35. 

237 



238 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

The practical side of the question may be studied in Mrs. Lincoln's 
well-known books, in Miss Farmer's Boston Cooking-School Cook 
Book, in Mrs. E wing's Bread and Bread Making, or in any of the 
good recipe books on the market. Excellent individual recipes by 
Miss Spring may be found in the American Kitchen Magazine for 
April, 1898. 

Further references that will be found useful in presenting the sub- 
ject, and making it attractive and interesting, are : Wheat : Commer- 
cial Geography, Chisholm ; Commercial Geography, Tilden ; Scribner's 
Monthly, vol. 22, p. 531 ; Popular Science Monthly, vol. 50, p. 101. 
Flour : The Nation, vol. 54, p. 42-4. Yeast : Huxley, Manchester Sci- 
ence Lectures. Bread : Lippincott, vol. 58, p. 704. Bread in the 
East : Penny Magazine, vol. 3, p. 2. Bread in Spain : Once a Week, 
vol. 1, p. 217. Bread and Cake Traditions: American Kitchen Maga- 
zine, vol. 7, p. 3. Tortillas: American Kitchen Magazine, vol. 7, 
p. 195 ; Boy Traveller in Mexico, Knox, p. 56. Festal Cakes : All the 
Year Round, vol. 40, p. 79. Biscuit Making (History of Crackers): 
Chambers's Journal, April, 1899. 

BREAD 

Bread was one of the earliest foods of man. That it was 
used long before history was written, the discoveries of 
modern times have shown us. In Switzerland, in the lake 
dwellings of prehistoric times, there have been found stones 
for grinding meal and baking bread, and even bread itself, 
in the form of round cakes. The first mention of bread in 
literature is in Genesis, in the words of Abraham to the 
angels, "I will fetch a morsel of bread." The Egyptians 
knew the art of breadmaking, and baked loaves and cakes 
in great variety of form and flavor. One ancient Greek 
writer names sixty-two kinds of bread in use; and in Eome 
there were many bakeries, where not only was the baking 
of bread done, but the grain was pounded and sifted, to 
prepare it for use. 

In our own day bread is found in a great variety of forms, 
many of them characteristic of certain nations ; familiar 



BREAD 239 

examples are the black bread of Germany, the oat cakes of 
Scotland, the hard rye cakes of northern Sweden, baked 
only twice in the year, and the passover cakes or unleavened 
bread of the Jews. Bread forms the staple food of a large 
section of the human race, and is often the only means of 
subsistence of the very poor. Mr. Goodfellow, in some 
investigations made in London, found that in the worst 
districts fifteen per cent of the children ate only bread for 
the twenty-one meals of the week, while forty per cent more 
had other food only two or three times a week. 

It is essential that so universal a food should be nutritious, 
palatable, and digestible. To fulfil these conditions, the 
flour used must be rich in nutriment; the bread must be 
light and porous, that as large a surface as possible may 
be exposed to the digestive juices; and the cooking must 
develop the flavor, and render the food materials more 
assimilable. Wheat produces a nutritious flour, containing 
all the food principles, though not in ideal proportions ; it 
makes light bread, since it contains a large proportion of 
gluten, a sticky, tenacious, nitrogenous substance, which 
enables the dough to retain the gas formed in it; and it 
produces bread in which the starch is in a digestible form. 
Wheat has the further advantage over other grains : that 
the kernel can be easily separated from the chaff ; that the 
yield of flour is large; that it is grown in almost every 
part of the world, in large amounts. In 1895 there were 
more than 2,400,000,000 bushels produced, largely in the 
United States, Eussia, France, and India. 

Wheat is a plant belonging to the grass family. It is 
classified as spring wheat and winter wheat, according to 
the time of sowing, the winter wheat being planted in the 
fall. It is also known as hard and soft, and as red or white 
wheat. The very hard variety is grown in Italy, and is 
used in the manufacture of macaroni. If a grain of wheat 



240 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

be soaked for a few hours in water and a thin cross-section 
cut, there may be plainly seen under the microscope four 
distinct layers. The two outer coats are bran, the third, 
also considered part of the bran, is made up of square or 
oblong proteid cells ; and the inner part, or endosperm, con- 
sists of large cells of irregular shape, containing starch cells 
lying in gluten. If a drop of iodine be put upon the section, 
the starch will become blue, and be clearly distinguishable 
from the rest of the grain. The composition of wheat varies 
with the kind, the climate, and other conditions. Professor 
Atwater gives as the average composition of one hundred 
samples of wheat flour : water, 12.5 % ; proteid, 11.3 % ; fat, 
1.1%; carbohydrates, 74.6 % ; mineral matter, 0.5%. 

The manufacture of flour from wheat is a complicated 
process, and its methods change from year to year. Its 
essential parts are as follows : first, the cleaning of the 
wheat, and the separation of the good grains from the im- 
perfect ones and from foreign material ; second, the crush- 
ing or cutting of the wheat, either by the old method of 
grinding between stones, or by the new process in which 
the grains are passed between a series of grooved rollers ; 
third, the bolting or sifting by which the bran is separated 
from the " middlings," and the different grades of flour 
from one another. In the whole wheat flour the bran is 
ground with the middlings, and forms part of the flour. 

Though the earliest form of bread was made simply by 
mixing flour and meal with water, and baking it, the tough, 
hard cake thus formed was neither very digestible nor wholly 
palatable. Experience probably taught that a light porous 
dough was more desirable, and so a leavened bread came 
into use. Doughs, or batters, are made light by means of 
some gas, which, by its expansion, forms a spongy, porous 
mass. Sometimes air is the gas used, and is beaten into the 
batter to make it light, as in the case of sponge cake ; but 



BREAD 241 

more often carbon dioxide (often called carbonic acid gas) is 
introduced. Carbon dioxide may be formed in the dough in 
two ways : first, by the action of an acid upon a carbonate, such 
as baking soda ; and second, by the growth of yeast, and the 
consequent fermentation of sugar. The latter is the oldest 
method of producing the result, and in spite of many efforts 
to introduce other processes, is still the most satisfactory. 
The ancient leaven was made by mixing flour and water 
together, and letting it stand until it fermented, and in 
some places " salt rising bread " is still made in the same 
way. The fermentation is caused by the wild yeast cells 
that are always floating in the air, and that fall into the 
exposed liquid. It is these wild yeasts which cause the 
change of apple juice into cider. The objection to this 
method of obtaining yeast is that bacteria and moulds, as 
well as different varieties of yeast, find access to the liquid, 
and often cause acetic or other acid fermentation, and give 
a sour or bitter taste to the bread. 

Yeast is a tiny, one -celled plant, about one two- 
thousandth of an inch in diameter, belonging to the class of 
budding fungi. The scientific name is Saccharomyces cerevi- 
sece. Under the microscope the yeast cell is seen to be 
round or oval, consisting of a cell wall filled with proto- 
plasm. In the young, fresh cell, the cell contents appear 
clear and homogeneous; but as the yeast grows older, the 
protoplasm becomes granular, and fat droplets and vacuoles 
appear. If a growing cell be watched, a bulging of the wall 
near one end of the cell will be seen, and this gradually 
increases until a new cell is formed. This daughter cell 
finally becomes detached from the parent cell, but often it 
first forms buds in its turn, so that a chain of cells is seen, 
each cell representing an individual plant. This method of 
reproduction is called budding. Under certain conditions 
of temperature and moisture^ there appear in the interior of 



242 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SdENCE 

the yeast cells two, three, or four rounded bodies called 
spores. These expand, and become surrounded with a wall ; 
the wall of the mother cell is ruptured, and the spores are 
set free as new cells, to bud, and produce a new generation 
of yeast. 

Yeast, like other living things, requires food. Moisture, 
oxygen, some nitrogenous matter, salts or mineral matter, 
and carbohydrates, especially sugary substances, are needed 
for its growth. The temperature is also an important fac- 
tor, 70° to 85° F. being the most favorable for active growth. 
The cells, when moist, are killed at a temperature varying 
from 130° to 150° F., though, when dry, they can sometimes 
withstand a temperature of 212° F. Yeast is rendered in- 
active by a low temperature, though it can withstand cold 
better than heat. 

Three kinds of yeast are in use for breadmaking, liquid 
(home-made or baker's), dry, and compressed yeast. Liquid 
yeast is prepared from potatoes, sometimes with the addi- 
tion of a few hops, sugar, and enough yeast to start the 
fermentation. It is used less than a few years ago, since 
the convenient yeast cake has come into use. Dried yeast 
finds its sale chiefly among those too far from market to 
procure fresh yeast. It is possible to make good bread with 
it, but not so easy as with fresh yeast. 

In most general use, at least near the large centres of 
population, is compressed yeast, a by-product in the manu- 
facture of whiskey. It is prepared by skimming the masses 
of yeast from the surface of the fermenting liquid, sifting it 
to take out all coarse particles of material, and washing by 
repeatedly adding and drawing off fresh water. Starch is 
then added, and the whole mass is formed in large cakes 
and sent to the point of distribution, where it is cut and 
wrapped in tinfoil. One cake, sold for two cents, is said to 
contain about sixty billion yeast cells. The advantage of 



BREAD 243 

this form of yeast is that it contains only one species of 
yeast, and that, when it is fresh, there are fewer bacteria 
present than in most home-made yeasts. A fresh cake is 
essential for good results. 

The property of yeast of which we make use in bread- 
making is its power to change certain kinds of sugar into 
alcohol and carbon dioxide; that is, to ferment sugar. 
When yeast is added to the flour and liquid, which are the 
essential ingredients of bread, and the whole is allowed to 
stand at a temperature of from 70° to 80° F., complicated 
chemical changes take place. The most important of these 
are : first, the conversion of part of the starch of the flour 
into sugar, accomplished by a ferment sent out by the yeast, 
or perhaps by a ferment present in the flour itself ; second, 
the change of the sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide, a 
direct result of the growth of the yeast. The chemical 
reactions may be expressed as follows : 

Starch Wat/er Sugar 

C 6 Hi O 5 + H2O = C 6 Hi 2 6 (dextrose) 
or, 

2 C 6 Hio0 5 + H 2 = C12H22O11 (maltose) 

_ Carbon 

Dextrose Alcohol Dioxide 

C 6 Hi 2 6 ( + yeast) = 2 C 2 H 6 + 2 C0 2 

Maltose 

Ci 2 H 22 0n -f H 2 (+ yeast) = 4 C 2 H 6 + 4 C0 2 

If bacteria are present, a further chemical change may take 
place, and the alcohol be converted into acetic acid, thus 
making the bread sour. 
The reaction is 

Alcohol Oxygen Acetic Acid Water 
C 2 H 6 + O = C 2 H 4 2 + H 2 

If perfectly pure yeast could be obtained, sour bread would 
be unknown. Since this is not practicable at present, we 



244 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

must guard against the souring of the dough by stopping 
the fermentation at the right stage, and by avoiding a high 
temperature, favorable to bacterial growth and deleterious 
to the best development of the yeast. 

The baking of bread accomplishes several objects: the 
living yeast and other organisms are killed ; the alcohol and 
carbon dioxide are driven off ; most of the starch grains are 
burst, and the starch is thoroughly cooked and thus made 
more digestible ; some of the starch is changed to dextrin, a 
more soluble and therefore more easily digested carbohy- 
drate; the loaf is browned by the change of some of the 
sugar to caramel. To accomplish these results, to stop the 
fermentation quickly that the bread may not sour, and to 
make certain that sufficient heat penetrates to the middle of 
the loaf, a temperature of from 400° to 450° F. is necessary. 

The process of breadmaking, as we practise it, consists in 
mixing flour with a liquid, either water or milk, adding 
yeast, salt, and often sugar and some kind of fat ; allowing 
the mixture to rise ; shaping it into loaves and letting it rise 
again; and baking it. The essential ingredients are the 
flour, liquid, and yeast. Sugar may be added to hasten the 
process, since fermentation takes place more quickly 
when it is present, and shortening (or fat) makes the loaf 
more tender. Milk gives a more tender bread than water, 
but one which will not keep so long, and for some people is 
less digestible, because of the possibility of the formation of 
lactic acid from the milk. If milk is used, it must be 
scalded to destroy the bacteria present. A good result is 
given by the use of half water and half milk. Bread is 
usually kneaded to insure thorough mixing of the in- 
gredients and even distribution of the gas bubbles in the 
dough. Kneading may also render the gluten more elastic. 
Excellent bread may be made without kneading, however, if 
care is taken to mix thoroughly the materials. Many bread- 



BREAD 245 

makers like to knead slightly because the "feel" of the 
dough tells more surely than anything else when the right 
consistency has been obtained. The kneading, if preferred, 
may be done between the first and second rising. If done 
then it is more effective in evenly distributing the gas, but 
care must be taken not to make the bread dry by kneading 
in too much flour. Bread may be set at night, allowed to 
rise all night, and baked in the morning, or it may be made 
by the quick process now coming into quite general use; that 
is, it may be set in the morning, a larger quantity of yeast 
used, and the whole process carried through in from four to 
six hours. In the slow process one-fourth of a yeast cake is 
allowed to a pint of liquid ; in the quick process one whole 
cake or even two may be used. The texture of the bread 
made by the two methods will differ somew r hat ; that made 
by the slow process will contain more dextrin and sugar, 
and will perhaps be slightly more digestible. The quick 
method, however, has the great advantage that the whole 
process can be watched, and the temperature more carefully 
regulated, so that the bread is less often sour. By using a 
large amount of yeast, and whole wheat flour, one may carry 
through the whole process of breadmaking in a school 
lesson of two hours, if it is necessary. 

The general rule for both the first and second rising of 
the bread is that the dough shall be allowed to double its 
bulk. When risen just enough, it should be soft and velvety, 
but not sticky, to the touch, and very elastic. It should 
always be covered during the rising, to keep out the air and 
prevent the formation of a hard crust. A simple method of 
testing the temperature of the oven is as follows : place a 
teaspoonful of flour on a plate in the oven ; if it browns in 
five minutes the oven is hot enough for a loaf of bread ; if 
in one minute it is right for rolls. No test, however, can be 
a substitute for experience. After a short time the heat 



246 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

may be lessened that the crust may not burn before the loaf 
is thoroughly cooked. The time for baking must be suf- 
ficient to allow the heat to penetrate to the interior of the 
loaf ; and to insure thorough cooking the loaves should be 
small. Slack-baked loaves not only are indigestible because 
of the uncooked condition of the starch, but often contain 
living bacteria or moulds. The interior of the loaf never 
becomes hotter than 212° F., because of the moisture present, 
and the temperature of the middle of a slack-baked loaf may 
remain far below that. 

As soon as the loaves are taken from the oven they should 
be removed from the pans, and left until perfectly cool in 
such a position that the air can circulate freely around 
them. 

Experiments. — I. The composition of flour. Mix half 
a cup of flour with water to form a stiff dough. Put it into 
a piece of cheese cloth and knead it thoroughly under water 
till nothing more can be washed out. Test with iodine the 
white powder of the washings. The blue color will prove it 
to be starch. Examine the tough, elastic substance which 
remains in the cloth. This is gluten, the chief proteid in the 
flour. Both the starch and gluten may be dried and kept 
for further examination. 

II. To show the difference between wheat flour and that 
from other grains, as a material for breadmaking, mix flour 
and water ; corn meal and water ; rye flour and water ; and 
compare the doughs formed. 

III. The effect of temperature on the growth of yeast. 
To a cup of boiling water add 2 tablespoons of molasses, 
and 1 of a yeast cake, crumbled into bits, and turn the mix- 
ture into a tumbler. Add an equal amount of molasses and 
yeast to a tumbler of ice water, and also to a tumbler of 
water at a temperature of about 80° F. Set the glasses aside 
in a warm place (about 80°) for an hour or two. Notice the 



BREAD 247 

time when bubbles, indicating the formation of gas, begin to 
appear in each liquid. Compare the amount of gas formed 
under the different conditions of temperature. 

IV. (For older pupils.) Fill a test-tube with a molasses 
and water mixture at a temperature of about 80°, and add a 
little yeast. Invert the test-tube in a shallow dish contain- 
ing also some molasses and water. Support the test-tube in 
some way and let the whole stand for twenty-four hours. 
The test-tube will then be found to be nearly emptied of 
liquid, and filled with a colorless gas which has forced the 
liquid out. The gas may be proved to be carbon dioxide by 
its power to extinguish a lighted match, and to turn lime 
water milky, the usual tests for this gas. 

Recipes 
(All measurements are level) 

Bread 

1 pint liquid (milk, or milk and water), 2 tablespoons of 
butter, 1 tablespoon of sugar, 1^ teaspoon of salt, 1 yeast 
cake, moistened with \ cup of water. Flour to make a 
dough stiff enough to knead (about 6 cups). 

Individual Rule. — \ cup of milk, 1 teaspoon of butter, 
\ teaspoon of sugar, \ teaspoon of salt, \ yeast cake, mixed 
with 2 tablespoons of water, about 1 cup of flour. 

Directions. — Scald the milk, add the butter, sugar, and 
salt, and cool to 80° F., or until it feels cool to the finger. 
Break the yeast into bits, and mix it thoroughly with the 
water, at a temperature of 80° ; add it to the milk, and stir 
in the flour gradually, using a knife or a wooden spoon. 
When the dough is just stiff enough to make into a smooth 
ball, knead it on a slightly floured board till smooth and 
elastic. Keturn it to the mixing bowl, cover closely with a 



248 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

cloth and tin cover, and let it rise till double its bulk, keep- 
ing it at a temperature of about 75°. Shape into small 
loaves ; place in the pans ; cover and let rise till it again 
doubles its bulk. Bake in a hot oven (400° to 450°) for 
about fifty minutes. 

Notes. — 1. Unless the water is known to be pure, it should be 
boiled and cooled. 

2. A good breadmaker leaves bowl, spoon, and board clean. From 
the time the wheat is harvested until it is made into flour nothing is 
wasted. From the time the flour is delivered at the house until the 
bread is used, much is wasted in the ordinary household. This should 
not be. 

3. Part of the dough, instead of being shaped into loaves, may be 
made into rolls. Koll the dough to thickness of half an inch, cut it 
into rounds ; with the fingers draw out each piece to an oval shape ; 
press nearly through the centre with the handle of a clean wooden 
spoon, dipped in flour ; rub a little melted butter on one half and fold 
the other half over it so that the edges meet. Let rise till very light, 
and bake in a very hot oven. If dough is set especially for rolls, the 
amount of shortening given in the rule may be doubled. 

Whole Wheat Bread. — Bread made from entire wheat 
flour is more nutritious than white bread. It is particularly- 
rich in mineral salts, but is somewhat less digestible than 
white bread, and, as part of a mixed diet, has no especial 
advantage over it. When bread is used as the chief article 
of diet, however, it is essential that it should have as high 
a food value as possible. Graham bread, though useful for 
some people, is undesirable for many, because of the coarse 
particles of bran which it contains. 

Rule. — 2 cups of milk, \ cup of sugar, 1\ teaspoon of 
salt, 1 yeast cake mixed with 2 tablespoons of water, about 
4 cups of entire wheat flour. 

Directions. — Scald the milk, add salt and sugar, and cool ; 
add the yeast and flour, and beat thoroughly. Let rise in 
the bowl, and when double in bulk pour into pans ; let rise 
again, and bake. 



BREAD 249 

Individual Rule. — \ cup of milk, 1^- teaspoon of sugar, 
\ teaspoon of salt, \ yeast cake in 1 teaspoon of water, 
i- cup of entire wheat flour. 

If it is desired to carry through the process in two hours, 
use \ a yeast cake. 

The Presentation of the Lesson. — The facts given in this 
chapter are for the teacher, not necessarily for the pupil. 
The judgment of the teacher alone can determine what 
should be presented to her particular class. As a rule, the 
simpler facts, easily understood, are more profitable for the 
pupil than the more elaborate and scientific side of the sub- 
ject. For example : a knowledge of the wheat plant, its 
habitat and structure, the ability to recognize it wherever 
seen, familiarity with it in literature and art, mean more to 
the child than any explanation of the chemical reactions 
which take place by the action of yeast. A child who has 
never heard of carbon dioxide nor of alcohol in connection 
with bread may have gained more from the bread lesson 
than one who can glibly talk of these things, but whose 
conception of the whole process is hazy, whose manipula- 
tion is poor, and whose power of applying theory to practice 
is undeveloped. 

The number of lessons given to the subject will also 
depend upon the class, and the amount of time available. 
A satisfactory division of the work is as follows : — 

Lesson I. Study of Materials. 

Experiments with flour, and with yeast. 
Demonstration by the teacher. 
Lesson II. Eeview of Theory. 

Shaping into loaves and rolls, and perhaps 
bread-sticks, of dough already mixed by 
teacher and once raised; raising and bak- 
ing it. 



250 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Setting a fresh portion of bread. (This may 
be carried home to bake, if the children so 
desire.) 



Lesson III. Whole Wheat Bread. The whole process 
carried through in one lesson. 

Lesson IV. Uses of Stale Bread. 

Bread pudding (plain or chocolate), cheese 
pudding, or cheese straws, and similar 
dishes made. 

If this division of lessons occupies too much time, the 
demonstration by the teacher may be omitted, and the set- 
ting of bread by the pupil may be included in the first 
lesson. In the second lesson the dough prepared by the 
teacher may be used, and some pupils may be selected to 
carry through the whole wheat bread process; the last 
lesson may be omitted. 

The outline here given is intended to be merely suggestive. 

Outline. 

I. Introduction. 

a. History of bread; allusions in literature. 

b. Kinds of bread in use. 

c. Value as a food. 

1. Food principles present. 

2. Digestibility. 

d. Comparative value of different kinds. 
II. Study of Wheat. 

a. Facts concerning it ; where grown, etc. 

b. Structure of the grain (under microscope if pos- 

sible). 

c. Manufacture of flour. 



BREAD 251 

d. Composition of the flour ; experiment showing 

starch and gluten. 

e. Superiority over flour from other grains for bread- 

making; experiment. 

III. Yeast. 

a. Description. 

Form, size, method of growth. 

b. How obtained ; different kinds in use. 

c. Conditions of growth. 

1. Moderate temperature. 

2. Moisture. 

' Nitrogenous matter. 

3. Food -j Mineral matter. 

„ Sugar. 
Temperature illustrated by experiment. 

d. Chemical changes caused by its growth. 

IV. Process of Breadmaking. 

a. Eule given. 

b. Reason for use of each material; essential and 

non-essential materials distinguished. 

c. Manipulations. 

Mixing, kneading, raising; importance of tem- 
perature. 

d. Baking. 

1. Reasons for. 

2. Principle of cookery. 
V. Care of Bread. 

a. Care on taking from the oven. 

b. The keeping of bread. 

c. Uses for stale bread. 

Baking Powder Mixtures 

It is often desirable to use a quick method of raising 
dough. Many expedients have been tried, but one of the 



252 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

most satisfactory is the production of carbon dioxide by the 
use of so called " baking powder." Baking powder is usually 
composed of "bicarbonate" of sodium (commonly called 
baking soda), cream of tartar, and starch. 

Baking soda, like all carbonates, readily gives up carbon 
dioxide upon treatment with an acid, and cream of tartar 
is the most convenient acid to use in practice, since it acts 
on the soda only in the presence of warmth and moisture, 
and the residue left after action ceases (Bochelle salt) is 
comparatively harmless. The starch is added because by 
its power of absorbing moisture it keeps the other ingredi- 
ents dry. The chemical reaction which takes place when 
baking powder is used is as follows : — 



Bicarbonate Potassium Acid 
of Sodium Tartrate 

NaHC0 3 4- KH(C 4 H 4 6 )= KNa(C 4 H 4 6 )+ C0 2 + H 2 0. 



of Sodium Tartrate Rochelle Salt 



Baking soda has a molecular weight of 84, and cream of 
tartar of 188. This means that the proper proportion in 
which to use them, so that there shall be no excess of either, 
is 84 parts, by weight, of soda, to 188 parts, by weight, of 
cream of tartar. An excess of the acid gives a sour taste ; 
an excess of. the soda, which is an alkaline substance, not 
only gives a disagreeable flavor, but hinders digestion. 

For this reason it is better to use baking powder, for 
which the ingredients have been carefully weighed out, 
than to buy soda and cream of tartar and mix them one's self. 
Soda is often used in cookery and the necessary acid fur- 
nished by sour milk or molasses. In this case one teaspoon- 
f ul of soda is usually allowed to one cup of molasses or one 
pint of sour milk. 

Baking soda is manufactured from common salt. Cream 
of tartar is obtained from the inside of wine casks, where it 
is deposited by the fermenting grape juice. It is then a 



BREAD 253 

purplish crystalline substance known as argol, and must be 
purified by dissolving, filtering through charcoal, and re- 
crystallizing, before it is put upon the market as cream 
of tartar. 

Baking powder biscuit, and similar mixtures, should be 
made into as soft a dough as it is possible to handle, should 
be handled as little and as quickly as possible, and baked 
immediately in a hot oven. 

The proportion of baking powder to be allowed for each 
cup of flour is from one and a half to two teaspoonfuls. 
When eggs are used, as in cake, less baking powder is 
needed. 

Eules 

Baking Powder Biscuit. — 2 cups flour, 2 tablespoons but- 
ter, 3 teaspoons baking powder, f cup milk, 1 teaspoon salt. 

Individual. — | cup flour, 1 teaspoon butter, \ teaspoon 
baking powder, 2 tablespoons milk, \ teaspoon salt. 

Beef drippings, or other fat, may be substituted for the 
butter. 

Directions. — Mix the dry ingredients and sift twice. Work 
in the butter with the tips of the fingers, and add the milk 
very gradually, mixing with a knife till a soft dough is 
formed. It may be found necessary to vary the amount of 
milk. Turn the dough on a floured board and roll lightly 
till it is about half an inch in thickness, cut into rounds, 
place in a greased pan, and bake in a hot oven about fifteen 
minutes. 

Short Cake 

Use the rule for biscuit, adding, to the whole amount, 
2 more tablespoons of butter, and 1 tablespoon of sugar. 
Mix, roll out to half an inch thickness, shape into two large 
rounds, place one upon the other, and bake. When done, 
split open, spread with a little butter, and fill with sweet- 
ened fruit : strawberries, oranges, or peaches. 



254 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Dutch Apple Cake 

Use the short cake rule with the addition of one egg, 
beaten, and added with the milk. Make the dough a little 
softer than for biscuit, spread in the pan, without rolling, 
and stick into it, in even rows, thin slices of apple. 
Sprinkle with sugar, and bake. This may be served with 
a sauce if desired. 

If more variety is wished, part of the biscuit dough may 
be rolled thin, spread with a little butter, sprinkled with 
cinnamon and sugar, and rolled like jelly roll. Slices three- 
quarters of an inch in thickness may be cut, laid in a pan, 
with the cut portion down, and baked. Chopped apple may 
be used instead of the spice. 

Another lesson may be given to breakfast muffins. Several 
different kinds should be chosen, such as graham, rye, corn 
meal, white muffins, assigned to different workers, and the 
children led to see that the principle is the same in each 
case. Muffins should be mixed to the consistency of a 
batter, not a dough. Usually a " drop " batter is used for 
them, — that is, a batter that will break as it falls, not pour 
in a continuous stream. 

The following outline for the study of baking powder will 
suggest some simple experiments which may be given. 

Baking Powder. 

I. Introduction. 

Methods of making doughs and batters light. 
a. By means of carbon dioxide, obtained : 

1. From the growth of yeast. 

2. From the action of an acid upon a carbonate. 
6. By means of air. 

II. Acids. 

Definition. Test (means of recognizing). 



BREAD 255 

Familiar acids (vinegar, lemon juice), tested by- 
litmus paper, and tasted. 

Cream of tartar proved an acid, by power to redden 
litmus and by taste. 

III. Carbonates. 

Meaning. A compound from which a gas (carbon 
dioxide) can be set free. Illustration, a piece 
of marble and an acid. 

Baking soda tested with litmus, and tasted and 
shown to have properties opposite from acid 
(alkaline) ; proved a carbonate by the addition 
of an acid. 

IV. Effect of Moisture and Heat on Soda and Cream 

of Tartar. 
Add cold and hot water each : 

a. To soda. 

b. To cream of tartar. 

c. To a mixture of the two, and compare results. 
V. Composition of Baking Powder. 

Add hot and cold water to baking powder, and com- 
pare results with IV. 

Mix a little baking powder with water and boil. 
Notice the consistency of the liquid, and test 
it with iodine. 
VI. Manufacture of Baking Powder. 

Source and preparation of chief ingredients. 

Eeason for adding starch. 

Reasons favoring its use. 
VII. Substitutes for Baking Powder. 

Soda and sour milk. 

Soda and cream of tartar. 



256 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



CAKE 

Cake is a mixture of flour, liquid, eggs, and sugar, with 
or without butter, made light by the use of yeast, as in the 
old fashioned "election cake " ; by air beaten into the batter, 
as in many sponge cakes ; or, most often, by the use of bak- 
ing powder. The egg, like the gluten of the flour, retains 
the gas till the cake is set by the heat. Gingerbread, and 
plain dark fruit cake, are often made with soda and sour 
milk, part of the acid being supplied by the molasses used. 
In these the egg is sometimes omitted. Cake made with 
butter is cup or pound cake, as the materials are measured 
or weighed. Sponge cake is always made without butter. 

The following are the general rules for cakemaking : — 

1. The oven should be ready before the work is begun. 
An oven which will turn a piece of white paper dark yellow 
in five minutes is considered right for cup cakes. Sponge, 
and fruit, or pound cakes, require less heat, and the test 
paper should turn light yellow in five minutes when the 
oven is right for them. If there is too much heat the gas 
will escape from the cake before the egg has time to set, 
and the cake will fall ; if the oven is too slow the cake will 
not rise sufficiently, and will be of coarse texture. Layer 
and small cakes need more heat than loaf cake. 

2. All materials should be ready, and the pans greased, 
and lined with paper, if loaf cake is made, before the work 
of combination begins. 

3. For butter cake the general rule for combining in- 
gredients is as follows: Cream the butter, add the sugar 
gradually, then the beaten eggs, and beat vigorously; acid 
the flour, sifted with the baking powder and salt, alternately 
with the milk ; flavor, add nuts and fruit dredged with flour, 
if any are to be used, and bake immediately. A more deli- 
cate cake is made by separating the yolks and whites of the 



CAKE 257 

eggs, adding the beaten yolks to the butter and sugar, and 
cutting or folding in the stiffly beaten whites just before 
putting the cake into the oven. 

For sponge cake beat the egg yolks till thick and yellow, 
add the sugar gradually, then the stiffly beaten whites, and 
last of all fold in the flour sifted with the salt. 

4. The mixing is most easily done with a wooden spoon. 
A Dover egg-beater, or a wire whisk, is the most satisfactory 
utensil for beating the eggs. After adding the eggs, beat the 
mixture rather than stir it, in order not to break the air 
bubbles formed. 

5. Pastry flour gives a more delicate cake than bread 
flour. If the latter is used, a little less is required than of 
pastry flour. The flour must always be sifted before measur- 
ing, as in all cookery, and sifted again when the baking 
powder has been added. Fine granulated or powdered 
sugar gives a cake of finer texture than a coarse sugar. 

6. A layer cake will bake in twenty minutes, while a loaf 
requires longer, the time varying with the size of the loaf. 
The cake is done when it shrinks from the edge of the pan, 
and when it springs back into place after pressure with the 
finger. 

7. When taken from the oven the cake should be removed 
from the pan, and left to cool upon a wire cake-cooler. It 
should be kept in a tin box or closely covered jar. 

Rule. 

Cup Cake. — 2 cups sugar, -| cup butter, 3 eggs, 1 cup milk, 
3 cups flour, 3 teaspoons baking powder, 1 teaspoon flavoring 
(lemon or orange), i teaspoon salt. 

Individual Rule. — J cup sugar, 1-i- tablespoon butter, \ egg, 
2 tablespoons milk, -i- cup pastry flour, \ teaspoon baking 
powder, 8 drops of flavoring, sprinkling of salt. 

The cake is to be put together by the method given above 
for mixing butter cakes. 



258 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

With this simple foundation a variety of cake may be 
made. Not only may different flavors be used, and some of 
the cake frosted, but to one may be added : — 

i teaspoon of molasses, 2 tablespoons of raisins, stoned 
and cut fine, a few slices of citron, 2 salt spoons of cinna- 
mon, 1 salt spoon each of clove and allspice, and 1 teaspoon 
of flour. (These proportions are for the individual rule). 

This may be baked in thin sheets and put together in 
alternate layers with some of the plain cake baked in the 
same form, and the layers held together by a little jelly, or 
some white of egg, slightly beaten. Another variation may 
be made by baking some of the white cake in layers and 
making a chocolate or other filling for it. To one portion 
English walnuts may be added, to another dried currants, 
and to a third some sliced citron. 

It is better to teach the cake lesson by giving one rule 
(any simple foundation may be substituted for the one 
given) and varying it, than by giving separate recipes ; as 
this method makes the child see the unity underlying all the 
variations, and gives her the power to change her own rule 
if she chooses. 

A second lesson may be given to gingerbread and cookies. 

PASTRY 

Pastry is not a form of food to be recommended, and 
should never be eaten by young children or by people of 
delicate digestion. The large amount of fat mixed with the 
flour and coating the starch grains, makes it difficult for the 
digestive juices to penetrate to the starch ; and as fat is 
digested neither in the mouth nor the stomach, the starch is 
not acted upon until late in the process of digestion. If 
pastry is to be eaten, however, it should be light, flaky, and 
thoroughly cooked; and one lesson may well be devoted to 
its preparation. Puff paste is difficult to make and expen- 



PASTRY 259 

sive, and its preparation has no place in a public school 
course, but a plain paste may be given. 

The principles of cookery involved in pastry making are 
those of starch cookery, and of the expansion of air to 
lighten the food materials. 

The materials used are : — 

1. Pastry flour. Since this contains more starch and less 
gluten than bread flour it makes a more tender paste. 

2. Fat: either butter, beef dripping, lard, or sometimes 
cottolene. Lard makes a whiter pastry than butter, but 
pastry made with butter and beef dripping is considered 
more digestible. 

3. Cold water. In summer ice-water is desirable. It is 
essential to good pastry that the fat should not melt until 
after the baking begins. 

4. Salt, for flavor, and sometimes baking powder to aid in 
making the pastry light. The manipulations consist of 
rubbing in the butter with the tips of the fingers ; stirring 
in the liquid with a knife ; patting and lightly rolling the 
dough, and cutting it into shape for baking. The success 
of the work depends upon having everything cool, and upon 
the handling of the dough as quickly and lightly as pos- 
sible. For the best pastry the butter must be washed and 
worked under water until waxy, to remove the salt and but- 
termilk. The utensils needed, in addition to those used for 
measuring and sifting, are a bowl, knife, kneading board and 
rolling pin, and plates or tins for baking. Pastry requires 
a hot oven, but the heat should be lessened after a short 
time. The pastry should first rise in the oven and then 
brown. The time of baking is from forty to fifty minutes. 

Rule. 

Plain Pastry. — 1 cup pastry flour, i cup butter or 2 table- 
spoons butter and 2 tablespoons dripping, \ teaspoon salt, 
ice-water to moisten. 



260 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Individual Rule. — ^ cup flour, 1 tablespoon butter, 1 salt 
spoon salt, ice-water. 

Note. — If a very plain paste is desired, less fat may be used, and 
\ teaspoon baking powder to 1 cup of flour may be added. 

Directions. — Sift together the flour, salt, and baking 
powder (if used). Wash the butter, and with the tips 
of the fingers work half of it into the flour. Add ice- 
water slowly, stirring with a knife, until a stiff dough is 
formed, then turn on a floured board and pat with the 
rolling pin, and roll lightly into an oblong piece. Spread 
the remaining butter upon the paste, and fold it, making 
three layers; pat and roll out and again fold into three 
layers, to entangle as much air as possible; roll out to 
about \ inch in thickness, and fit to the pie plate. 

Apple Pie. — Select sour apples, pare, core, and cut into 
slices, and with them nearly fill the pie plate which has 
been lined with paste. Sprinkle with sugar, allowing 1 
tablespoon to each apple, and with cinnamon. Lemon juice 
or nutmeg may be substituted for the cinnamon, and if a 
richer pie is desired, bits of butter may be dotted over 
the surface. Cover with a crust, and press together the 
edges of the two crusts which have been moistened with 
a little water. Perforate the upper crust with a large 
fork, or in some way, that the steam may escape. Bake 
for about three-quarters of an hour. 

Custard Pie. — Line the plate with a crust and prick it 
with a fork. With narrow strips of paste, moistened with 
water, make a rim to the pie to add to its depth ; bake until 
crisp but not brown. Mix milk, egg, and sugar in the pro- 
portion of 1 egg to 1 cup of milk and 2 tablespoons of sugar ; 
season with a. little salt and a few gratings of nutmeg, and 
pour into the crust. Bake in a moderate oven until the 
custard is set. 



MARCH 



THE BEDEOOM 
Advanced Course: Invalid Cooking 

By CAROLINE L. HUNT, A.B., 

Foemerly Teacher in the High Schools of Minneapolis and Brooklyn, 

and Assistant in Food Investigation, U.S. Department of Agriculture; now 

Instructor in Domestic Economy in Lewis Institute, Chicago. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE BEDROOM 

REFERENCES 

The Bedroom : Magazine of Art, vol. 9, p. 81. Manners and Cus- 
toms of Other Nations and Times : Antiquarian, nev^ series, vol. 2, 
p. 185; Cosmopolitan, vol. 2,* p. 75; Leisure Hour, vol. 2, p. 227 ; All 
the Year Round, vol. 17, p. 41, vol. 33, p. 274; Chambers's Journal, 
Year 1861, p. 260; Every Saturday, vol. 13, p. 249; Private Life of 
the Romans, Preston and Dodge. Physiology : American Textbook 
of Physiology, Howell ; The Human Body, Martin. Chemistry : In- 
organic Chemistry, Remsen's Advanced Course. Furnishing and 
Cleaning : Home Economics, Maria Parloa. Cooking for the Sick : 
Practical Dietetics, Thompson; Boston Cooking-School Cook Book, 
Farmer ; Handbook of Invalid Cooking, Boland. 

Introduction 

The Word Bedroom. — It is unfortunate that the bedroom 
is not what its name implies — a place for a bed only. It 
too often contains not only conveniences for sleeping, but 
also for making the toilet. Not infrequently, especially in 
boarding-houses, one room must serve the purposes of bed- 
room, toilet room and living room. This condition of affairs 
is much to be deprecated, and we should always hold before 
ourselves the ideal of a bright and airy room, used only for 
a sleeping room. Into such a room none of the clothing 
worn during the day would be taken, and no toilets made. 
Bedrooms of this sort would make us a healthier people. 
They are not practicable for most of us, however, and the 

263 



264 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

statements made in this chapter must be understood as 
referring to a room used for both sleeping and toilet pur- 
poses. 

Lesson I 
Hygiene of the Bedroom 

Necessity for Healthful Bedrooms. — In the bedroom one- 
third of life is spent. The other two-thirds is so divided 
that in most cases we may say there is no other one 
place in which so much of our time is passed. It follows 
that there i*s no other place which can be in so large a 
measure responsible for our health or for our sickness. 
The time spent in the bedroom, moreover, should be a time 
of refreshment and recuperation. If conditions are not 
favorable for these things, we are likely to be incapacitated 
for our daily work. 

Substances which tend to make the Bedroom Unhealthful. 
— Much of the waste material of the body is cast off in the 
bedroom. This is in the form of excretions from the lungs, 
the skin, and the kidneys. These waste materials bear much 
the same relation to the body that the ash bears to the fur- 
nace. Most of them are not harmful in themselves, but 
they are useless, and they crowd out other substances which 
are distinctly useful. Another source of danger is the 
street dust which settles upon our clothing during the day. 
This is more likely to be left in the bedroom than in other 
rooms of the house because it is here that the clothing is 
put on and taken off, being thus moved about and shaken. 
This dust is dangerous, partly because it irritates the air 
passages, and partly because it is almost sure to contain the 
germs of disease. 

Excretions from the Lungs. — Ordinary air is a mixture of 
two invisible gases, oxygen and nitrogen. About one-fifth 



THE BEDROOM 265 

is oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen. Small amounts of other 
substances are always present. The nitrogen is very inert 
and neither affects the body nor is affected by it. The 
oxygen is the part of the air which is essential to life and 
health. Oxygen is frequently called the supporter of com- 
bustion. When a substance burns, it unites with oxygen 
and a compound is formed, which, while it contains both 
the substance itself and oxygen, is unlike either. Such 
a compound, called an oxide, will not burn because it has 
already all the oxygen it can hold. Neither is it a good 
supporter of combustion, because oxygen will not ordinarily 
leave the substance which holds it to unite with a new 
substance. 

The oxygen in the air which enters our lungs is carried 
by the blood to the various tissues of the body. It there 
unites with the substances which compose the tissues. 
This phenomenon is called burning, and serves the double 
purpose of changing worn-out tissue into substances which 
can be easily removed from the body, and of maintaining 
animal heat. As the tissues are largely composed of carbon 
and hydrogen, the substances formed in the burning are 
chiefly oxides of carbon and of hydrogen. The former is a 
gas known as carbon dioxide. The latter is water. These 
are brought by the blood to the lungs and there excreted 
from the body. As they do not support combustion, it is 
useless to breathe them into the lungs. The process of 
breathing, therefore, carried on in a closed room, is con- 
stantly removing from the air a substance which is useful 
to the body, and returning to it substances which are 
useless. Worse than this, we are constantly breathing off 
minute particles of poisonous substances, probably bits of 
worn-out lung tissue. These substances are known as 
" crowd-poisoning," and give the bad odor to closed rooms 
in which many people are breathing. 



266 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

It is evident, then, that in a bedroom, in which one 
remains so many hours out of the twenty-four, there should 
be a constant supply of fresh air. If fresh air is not sup- 
plied, the impure air is breathed over and over again, and 
both the carbon dioxide, which is useless, and the " crowd- 
poisoning," which is extremely harmful, constantly increase, 
while the useful oxygen diminishes. Nor is it safe to make 
one's senses the test of the purity of the air which he has for 
some time been breathing. It is easy to become accustomed 
to bad air. Who has not entered a close room, and found it 
difficult to breathe the air, whose impurity the occupants of 
the room had not discovered ? 

Experiments. I. To show that oxygen supports combus- 
tion. — In a test-tube heat a few pieces of potassium chlorate 
until gas is given off. This gas is oxygen. Light a match. 
Extinguish all but a spark. Insert in gas at top of the tube. 
It bursts into a flame. 

Note. — By consulting the works on chemistry given as references, 
the teacher can learn methods of preparing oxygen on a larger scale, 
and can show its properties more in detail. 

II. To make the oxide of carbon, known as carbon dioxide. 
— Fasten a piece of charcoal, which is nearly pure carbon, on 
a wire. Pass the wire through a piece of cardboard. Heat 
the charcoal until it glows, and then plunge into a wide- 
mouthed bottle in such a way that the cardboard serves as a 
cover for the bottle. (A bottle of pure oxygen is better 
than a bottle of air). When the fire has gone out, remove 
the charcoal and pour clear lime water into the bottle. Cork 
and shake. The water will become milky. After the burn- 
ing of the charcoal, the bottle was full of the gas called 
carbon dioxide. This gas always makes lime water milky. 

III. To show that carbon dioxide is not a good supporter of 
combustion. — Make a bottle of carbon dioxide, as in Ex. II. 



THE BEDROOM 267 

Into this plunge a lighted stick or taper. It is immediately 
extinguished. 

IV. To shoiv that the air ivhich comes from the lungs con- 
tains carbon dioxide. — Take a bottle half full of clear lime 
water. Into this bottle fit a rubber stopper having two 
holes. Into one hole put a piece of glass tubing reaching 
almost to the bottom of the bottle. Into the other hole put 
a piece reaching just below the stopper. Placing the lips on 
the short tube, draw the air of the room through the lime 
water, being very careful not to exhale air from the lungs 
into the bottle. Note that the lime water undergoes very 
little change, if any. Now place the lips to the long tube 
and blow air from the lungs into the bottle. Note that the 
lime water soon becomes milky, and that on standing, a 
white precipitate settles to the bottom of the bottle. 

V. To show that heat is created within the body. — Take the 
temperature of the room with a thermometer. Then hold 
the thermometer tightly in the hand for two or three 
minutes. Why does the mercury rise? 

Lesson II 

Hygiene of the Bedroom (continued) 

Excretions from the Skin. — The waste material of the 
body is thrown off through the skin, as well as through the 
lungs. Every day there come through the skin small 
amounts of carbon dioxide, and from one and one-half to 
two pints of water. This water usually evaporates imme- 
diately, and is therefore spoken of as insensible perspira- 
tion. It is absorbed by the clothing, which, therefore, 
needs frequent washing or airing, to prevent it from getting 
musty. With the water always come certain solid sub- 
stances which are left on the skin when the water evapor- 
ates. The skin also excretes an oily substance. Some of 



268 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

these solid matters are ill-smelling when first excreted. 
Others decompose if they stay on the skin long. Butyric 
acid, which gives the vile odor to rancid butter, is found 
among the excretions of the skin. These substances are 
rubbed off from the skin by the friction of the clothing 
during the day, and when the clothing is removed at night 
they are likely to be freed, and to settle in the bedroom. 
They also get on the night clothing. The best way to keep 
these excreted substances from accumulating in the bed- 
room is to bathe frequently, and to air thoroughly the 
clothing worn at night as well as that worn by day. 

Excretion from the Kidneys. — Urine, one of the waste 
products of the body, is often voided in the bedroom. This 
contains a substance known as urea, which arises from the 
decomposition of the nitrogenous tissues. The decom- 
position begun inside the body continues outside, and the 
urea changes into ammonia and carbon dioxide. These, 
passing into the air, add to its impurity. The urine also 
gives off small amounts of ill-smelling substances. These 
make us uncomfortable, if they harm us in no other way, 
and discomfort undermines the health, just as anxiety and 
sorrow do. 

The Dangers from Dust. — Having considered the dangers 
from within, we must now give our attention to the dangers 
from without. The former have been understood for many 
years. The latter are only beginning to be understood. 
These dangers are due to the presence everywhere of very 
minute organisms known as bacteria. Bacteria are so small 
that the inexperienced find difficulty in seeing them even 
with the microscope. Like human beings, bacteria differ 
very much one from another. Some are very useful; for 
example, those which help plants to get food from the air. 
Others destroy property; for example, those which cause 
milk to sour. Still others are extremely harmful. Most of 



THE BEDROOM 269 

the diseases with which people are afflicted are now thought 
to be caused by bacteria of the last class. The dust which 
blows about the street and which we carry into the house on 
our shoes and other clothing is full of bacteria, and these 
are frequently harmful bacteria. The bacillus of tubercu- 
losis is very commonly found in street dust, on account of 
the frequency of the disease, and the failure of persons 
afflicted with it to exercise proper care in the disposal 
of the sputum. Surface dirt is very likely to contain the 
germ of lockjaw. Besides these two germs, those of many 
other dreaded diseases may be contained in the dust which 
clings to our clothing. For this reason we should be very 
careful not to bring overshoes and outside wraps into the 
bedroom. We should also be careful not to sit upon the 
bed or rub our clothing against it. It is well to remove 
the counterpane from the bed at night and substitute a 
sheet which has been put away from the dust. Woollen 
carpets and draperies provide good hiding-places for dust 
and germs. Such articles should never be used in a bed- 
room. On the other hand sunshine is a foe to germs, and 
should be allowed to stream into the bedroom all day if 
possible. Better fade all the furniture in the room than to 
give disease germs a chance to live and flourish. These 
three rules should always be kept in mind in combating 
the evils of dust: (1) Avoid, as far as possible, bringing 
harmful substances into the room. (2) Provide no lurking- 
places for such substances. (3) Bemove frequently the 
harmful substances which inevitably do collect. 

Suggestions for Illustrative Experiments. — I. The amount 
of matter excreted by the skin and lungs during the night 
may be determined by weighing one's self the last thing at 
night, and immediately on rising in the morning. If urine 
has been voided in the meantime, its weight must be 
subtracted from the total difference. If this could be done 



270 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

by even one or two pupils in the class, it would serve as a 
valuable illustration. 

II. Where a microscope is available, the teacher might, 
by the use of prepared slides, give her class some idea 
of the nature of germs. 

Lesson III 
Building and Furnishing 

Location of the Bedroom. — The location of the bedroom is 
a matter for serious consideration. It should be so situated 
that it receives the sun during some time of the day. East 
rooms are preferable, for they get the sun during the morn- 
ing airing and cleaning time. Next best are south rooms. 
All rooms cannot be east or south rooms, but a house can 
be planned so as to get sun into most of the rooms. As 
important as sun is fresh air. If it is impossible to have 
opposite windows in the bedroom, the house should be so 
planned that the windows of each bedroom are opposite to 
windows in an adjoining room or hall. It will then be pos- 
sible to allow the fresh air to sweep through the rooms as 
often as needed. There should always be a window in the 
bedroom closet. This should be in the wall opposite the 
door of the closet, thus securing a draft when the door and 
window are opened for the daily airing. Quiet is another 
important consideration in locating the bedroom. Other 
things being equal, the bedroom should be in the part of 
the house most removed from the noise of the street. A 
little additional care in building, in the direction of deaden- 
ing partitions and floors, would serve to keep from the bed- 
room many of the disturbing sounds within the house. 

It is a great advantage if, in planning the house, a place 
can be provided for airing mattresses. Because of the 
weight of the mattresses it should not be necessary to 



THE BEDROOM 271 

carry them far. A sunny porch, out of sight of the 
street, and opening by a door or a long window from the 
upper hall, is the best place for such airing. This porch 
should be furnished with hooks for attaching clothes lines. 
On the lines, pillows and the lighter weight bed furnish- 
ings can be aired. 

Finishings of the Bedroom. — Having located the bedroom, 
attention must next be given to the finishing. In covering 
the walls, the first consideration should be that of cleanli- 
ness. If paper is used, it should be frequently renewed. 
Paint is desirable because it can be washed. Calcimining 
is cheap and easily renewed. The woodwork should be 
plain, and so made as to shed dust instead of collecting it. 
Closet shelves should be removable. If there is a chest of 
drawers in the closet, it should stand well up from the floor, 
so that the space underneath can be easily cleaned without 
removing the drawers. The floor should be so made as to 
look well without a covering. Hard wood is best, but soft 
wood painted is better than the costliest carpet. 

The Furniture of the Bedroom. — The necessary furniture 
of a bedroom consists of a bed, a dresser, a washstand, a 
towel rack, a table, and a few chairs. A screen and a clothes 
rack for airing clothing and bedding are desirable. All of 
these should be of light weight, and should stand high from 
the floor. 

The Bed. — If it is necessary for two persons to occupy 
the same room, each should have a separate bed. The best 
beds are those of brass or iron. The simplicity with which 
these beds are constructed makes it possible to keep them 
almost dust-free, while the metal furnishes a cold welcome 
to the bedroom pest, which the most careful housekeeping 
cannot, in these days of public conveyances, prevent from 
occasionally making its way into the house. The brass 
beds are generally considered the more beautiful, but, be- 



272 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

sides being more expensive, they require more care to keep 
them bright, and are no more healthful than the iron ones. 
The bed should have a woven wire spring, attached to an 
iron frame in order that it may not sag. This spring should 
be provided with a coarse cotton cover for top and sides, to 
which should be attached tapes for keeping it in place. 
Over the spring should come the mattress. The kind of 
mattress used is a matter of personal choice. Hair mat- 
tresses are, in many respects, the most desirable. An 
objection to them, however, is that they are too yielding, 
and do not support the body in the horizontal position most 
conducive to healthful rest. An excellent combination may 
be made by placing a thin hair or wool mattress over one of 
harder material. It is best to have the heavier mattress, at 
least, made in two parts for ease in turning. The mattress 
should be encased in a cotton cloth to protect the tick. 
Such a case should be washed two or three times a year. 
The cleanliness of the bed depends much on the size of the 
sheets. These should be three-quarters of a yard longer 
than the mattress, and as much wider. Blankets are better 
than comforters, because they are more easily washed. All- 
wool blankets are more beautiful, but are harder to wash 
and are no more healthful than those which are part cotton. 
The counterpane should be of generous size and of some 
washable material. Pillows should have removable cases 
of white cloth over the tick, besides the pillow-slips. 

Furnishings of the Dressing-table. — The dressing-table 
should have a cover that can be easily laundered. Nothing 
is more unlovely or more unhealthful than silk, velvet, or 
woollen furnishings for a dressing-table. The hair receiver, 
trays, and any other article forming part of the equipment 
should be of metal or china. The latter is better, because 
more easily cleaned. 

Furnishings of the Washstand. — The washstand should 



THE BEDROOM 273 

be protected by a washable cover. The wall back of the 
stand may be painted to match the decoration of the rest of 
the room, or may be protected by a screen or cloth. The 
pieces composing the toilet set should be of generous size, 
the bowl broad and shallow, and the pitcher wide-mouthed. 

Rugs and Draperies. — Upholstered furniture and woollen 
draperies should never find their way into the bedroom. A 
few rugs that can be easily shaken are not so inadmissible. 
Wool, however, is the best kind of a lurking-place for bad 
odors, dust, and bacteria. If the walls of the bedroom are 
of delicate color, the draperies and bed furnishings dainty, 
the room can be made most attractive without a single 
article in it which cannot be easily cleaned. 

Exercise. — If the class is composed of sufficiently ad- 
vanced pupils, the principles of this lesson can best be 
impressed upon them by having them plan the upper 
floor of a house, endeavoring to secure for each bedroom 
a maximum of sunlight and air. Each pupil could be 
required, also, to prepare a scheme for decorating and 
furnishing a bedroom. 

Lesson IV 
Going to Bed, and leaving the Room in the Morning 

Relation of Personal Habits to Healthfulness of the Bedroom. 

— If we keep in mind the facts given in Lessons I. and II., 
we can easily realize that our personal habits may determine 
the healthfulness or unheal thfulness of the bedroom. Re- 
membering that outside wraps and overshoes have street 
dust and bacteria upon them, we should leave such articles 
in hall closets, and not bring them into the bedroom. All 
clothing should as often as possible be shaken and brushed 
in the open air. In preparing for bed, we should never put 
into the closet articles of clothing which have been next to 



274 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

the skin during the day. These should be aired by an open 
window. A small rack which can be folded and laid away 
during the day is convenient for this purpose. It can be 
used also for the airing of bedclothes in the morning. The 
excretions of the skin should be removed at least once a day 
with water, and not be left to accumulate in the bedroom. 
People differ as to the time of the daily bath ; but the hands, 
face, and feet, which are most likely to have germ-laden dust 
on them, should be washed at night, even when the time for 
the whole bath is the morning. Although these matters come 
more appropriately under the head of personal hygiene, they 
are introduced here because of the close dependence of the 
cleanliness of the bedroom upon the cleanliness of the per- 
son. 

Preparation for the Night. — In preparing the bed for the 
night, the counterpane should be removed and carefully 
folded. For the protection of the blanket, a sheet or other 
light covering may be put over the bed. Be sure that the 
sheets thoroughly protect the blankets from contact with 
any part of the body. The windows should always be 
opened at night. If one objects to dampness in the air, 
a screen such as is described in Lesson VI. may be placed in 
the window. The ventilation of the room will be fairly 
satisfactory if the window is opened only from the bottom, 
providing it is opened wide ; but, as the warm air from the 
body rises, it is better to have the window open at both top 
and bottom. If the shade is left part way down, this will 
generally cause it to rattle and disturb the slumber. To 
avoid this, roll the shade to the top, and have a large screen 
to protect the person in bed from both light and draft. 

Care of the Room on Rising. — On rising, we should at once 
take measures for ridding the room of the excreta which 
have been given off from the body during the night. The 
bedclothes should be removed from the bed and hung on 



THE BEDROOM 275 

chairs or a rack by an open and, if possible, sunny window. 
The mattress should be turned daily, and the bed frequently 
rolled out before a sunny window. If occasionally left here 
all day, no harm, but rather good, will result; and no one 
will object except that class of housekeepers whose zeal for 
having the " room-work done up early " leads them to shut 
all sorts of impurities away from the cleansing power of 
sun and air. The night-dress should be thoroughly aired 
before being put into the closet. If one does her own 
room-work and must leave the house soon after breakfast, 
she should clean the washstand before breakfast in order to 
have the room left open as long as possible after the air has 
been freed from the pollution of odors arising from the slop 
jar and chamber. If time is not limited, this can be left 
until after breakfast. 

Exercise. — This lesson may easily be made a practical 
exercise, if a model bedroom is provided. Pupils can go 
through the preparations for retiring and for leaving the 
room in the morning, explaining each act in accordance 
with the principles of Lessons I. and II. 

Lesson V 
The Daily and Weekly Cleaning of the Bedroom 

The Daily Cleaning. — The bedroom should be aired during 
the breakfast time, according to the directions given in the 
last lesson. Unless the weather is very cold, the windows 
should be left open while the cleaning is being done. 

Cleaning the Washstand. — Examine the soap-dish. If it 
is dirty, wash it in the bowl and dry on a cloth kept for the 
purpose. Wash and wipe the bowl thoroughly. Take the 
slop jar and the chamber to the bathroom. Empty them, 
rinse with cold water, and wipe them dry. If, because 
there is no bathroom in the house, or it is not easily accessi- 



276 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

ble, a pail must be brought into the bedroom, set it on a 
cloth kept for that purpose. After emptying the contents 
of the jar and chamber, rinse them with water from the 
pitcher, drying as before. The pitcher should next be 
rilled, after having been rinsed to free it from probable 
settlings. Remove the soiled towels and place clean ones 
on the rack. 

Making the Bed. — The bedding having been thoroughly 
aired and the mattress turned, the bed is ready for making. 
Put on the under sheet, tucking it in securely under the 
mattress at top, bottom, and sides. Pat on the upper sheet 
and blankets. Tuck them in at the foot, but allow them to 
fall at the sides of the mattress. Turn the upper sheet 
down over the blankets. Put on the counterpane and 
pillows, beating and smoothing the latter well. 

General Care. — Brush the dust from the floor. Dust all 
furniture with a soft cloth. Arrange the articles on the 
dresser and table. It is always well to wipe up the floor 
with a damp cloth after the dusting has been done. If it is 
impossible to do this daily, let it be done as often at least as 
two or three times a week. 

The Weekly Cleaning. — If convenient, and the day is suit- 
able, remove the mattresses to a sunny porch, and leave them 
while the room is being swept. If the room contains rugs 
and any unwashable draperies, remove them to some out- 
door place where they can be properly beaten and cleaned. 
Brush the floor of the closet, and wipe with a wet cloth, 
drying thoroughly. Wash the toilet articles with soap and 
water, and place them on the floor of the closet. Eemove 
the cover from the washstand. Put it into the wash, or, if 
it is not soiled, shake it thoroughly by the open window, and 
put it into the closet. Dust all articles on the dressing-table, 
and any small ornaments, and put them away in a drawer. 
Brush the dust from the pictures, the furniture, and the 



THE BEDROOM 277 

woodwork. Then brush the floor. Allow the dust to 
settle, and, in the meantime, clean the looking-glass and 
the windows. Next dust the room thoroughly with a soft 
cloth. Wipe the floor with a damp cloth, and replace the 
furniture. It is well occasionally to wipe the ceiling and 
wall with a cloth tied over a broom, or with a long-handled 
brush made for the purpose. If the room is carpeted, the 
method of cleaning is much the same, but in this case there 
is so much more dust that light furniture should be removed 
from the room and heavy furniture covered with cloths. 
The carpet should be wiped the last thing with weak 
ammonia water. 

Exercise. — The methods of cleaning described in this 
lesson can be illustrated in the model bedroom. In addi- 
tion to the furniture of the room, there should be provided 
a large floor-brush, a ceiling-brush, a whisk broom, a pail, 
soap, and a plentiful supply of soft rags and dusting cloths. 



Lesson VI 

The Care of the Sick 

Need of Healthful Conditions in the Sick-room. — Especial 
care should be taken to have the conditions of the sick-room 
healthful. Here the invalid spends, not merely one-third 
of his time, but all of it. On account of his weakness, he 
is unable to resist harmful influences. The amount of 
waste material thrown off from the body is generally much 
increased, as is shown b}^ the wasting of the body. What 
we have learned in regard to the care of bedrooms in 
general we may apply to the care of a sick-room, keeping 
in mind always the need of extra precautions in ventilating, 
cleaning, and in other ways preventing the accumulation of 
harmful substances. 



278 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Ventilation. — In order that the air of the room may be 
kept fresh, make a screen for the window, having a frame 
like that of an ordinary wire screen. Over the frame tack 
a piece of flannel. This screen, placed in an open window, 
admits fresh air, but excludes dampness. At night, never 
turn the light low, for the gas or oil is likely to escape 
unburned, thus polluting the air. In order that the patient 
may not be disturbed by the bright light, have a small paper 
screen to hang between him and the light, or have a large 
screen to shut off. the light wholly from the bed. With 
these precautions, the air can be kept reasonably good for 
several hours. The room must, however, have a thorough 
airing at least once a day. This may be done without injury 
to the patient, if these directions are followed : put a small, 
light, perfectly clean shawl around the patient's head, and 
pin it under his chin ; one end thrown lightly over his face 
will furnish further protection, if needed; put an extra 
blanket on the bed; double a sheet lengthwise, and put it 
on the side of the bed toward the window, fastening it to 
the head and the foot of the bed, and having it come high 
enough to shield the bed completely ; open all the windows, 
and leave them open for half an hour at least. 

Care of the Bed. — The care of the bed is extremely impor- 
tant, not only for the comfort of the patient, but for his 
safety. The sheets should be changed at least once a day. 
Unless a patient is suffering from some contagious disease, 
the sheets which are removed can usually be cleansed suffi- 
ciently by sunlight and fresh air to permit of their being 
used again. In the morning, remove both sheets, or, at least, 
the under one, which receives more of the bodily excreta 
than the upper one. Hang this sheet in the open air, in the 
sun, if possible. Take it in at night, and have it thoroughly 
dry and warm for use the next morning. Much of the labor 
of washing may, in this way, be saved, without endangering 



THE BEDROOM 279 

the comfort or safety of the patient. Whether one or both 
sheets are to be changed, and whether the change shall be 
made only in the morning, or both in the morning and at 
night, as well as the frequency of washing, will depend 
upon the severity of the sickness. A sheet folded twice 
and stretched across the bed under the patient's body is a 
great protection to the under sheet, and is easier to change. 
It is necessary, however, to pin it down very carefully with 
safety pins, or it will prove an uncomfortable addition. 

Changing the Sheets. — In order to change the sheets with- 
out disturbing the patient unnecessarily, remove the sheet 
from half of the bed, and replace it with a clean one. Push 
the soiled sheet up toward the patient, and also the clean 
sheet. The patient can then move, or be moved, on to the 
clean sheet, and the other side of the bed covered with it. 
Fasten the sheet securely to the mattress with large safety 
pins ; this prevents the possibility of wrinkling. The lower 
sheet should be particularly well tucked in at the top. If 
the sheet is short, sacrifice the foot rather than the head. 
In putting on the upper sheet, this must be reversed. Tuck 
in well at the foot, and, if necessary, protect the counter- 
pane with a large handkerchief. 

Changing the Nightclothes. — In putting a night garment 
on a helpless patient, gather the back of it into loose folds 
from top to bottom. Holding these in the right hand, with 
the left raise the patient's head, and slip the garment over 
it, the folded part coming under his neck. Put the arms of 
the patient into the sleeves, and gently draw down the 
garment. In removing, reverse the process. Pull the gar- 
ment up into folds under the neck. Remove the arms from 
the sleeves ; raise the head with one hand, and take off the 
garment with the other. 

Bathing the Patient. — For the bath, there should be, at 
the bedside, a blanket, a basin of water from 90° to 100° F., 



280 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

a Turkish towel, a face towel, a washrag, and a piece of 
pure soap. Floating soaps are best for this purpose. Ke- 
move all of the patient's clothes ; put him in a blanket, and 
cover him. Put the face towel under his head. Wash his 
face, neck, and ears, using no soap upon the face. Dry well 
with the face towel. Put this towel away. Lay one arm 
on the bath towel ; wash and dry. Eepeat with the other. 
In the same way, wash one leg at a time. Finally, bathe 
the chest and back. Eub the back with alcohol to harden 
the skin and prevent bed-sores. Put on the patient's night- 
clothes, and remove the blanket. 

Combing the Hair. — If the hair is long, it should be parted 
through the middle, and each side divided into two parts. 
The front hair on each side should be braided for a little 
distance ; then this part should be drawn back, and braided 
in with the back section on the same side. 

Giving the Medicines. — Medicines should be kept out of 
sight of the patient. Glasses, spoons, a napkin, and any- 
thing else needed in administering the medicines, should 
be kept on a little tray, on which is a dainty doily. The 
glasses and spoons should be kept bright and shining. In 
giving medicine, put a napkin under the patient's chin, and 
have the medicine in a glass, instead of bringing the bottle 
to the bedside. 

Sanitary Precautions. — The floor of a sick-room should be 
wiped every day with water. The furniture should be kept 
free from dust, all unnecessary articles, and those especially 
likely to harbor dust, being removed from the room. Every- 
thing used about the patient, or in the room, should be 
spotlessly clean. Disinfectants may be dispensed with in 
non-contagious diseases, but soap must never be spared. 
The chamber should be kept in the closet. It should be 
provided with a sanitary rubber cover, which prevents the 
escape of odors, and is of light weight, and noiseless. This 



THE BEDROOM 281 

cover may be used also on the bedpan. A little water should 
always be poured into a chamber or bedpan before it is used, 
thus facilitating its cleaning. These articles should always 
be washed with soap after being used by the sick. 

Care of Flowers. — Flowers should never be kept in a sick- 
room after they begin to fade. The stems should be cut 
every morning, the vases thoroughly washed, and the flow- 
ers put into fresh water. At night they should be removed 
from the room to a cool place- 
Exercises. — This lesson is especially well suited to prac- 
tical illustration. The directions given for changing and 
securing the sheets, for changing the nightclothes, and for 
bathing the patient, will serve as a guide for three highly 
practical and useful demonstrations. 

Lesson VII 
Feeding the Sick 

Duty of the Nurse. — The feeding of the sick is a very 
important matter. In acute diseases, proper food is as 
necessary as medicine ; w r hiie, in many chronic diseases, diet 
may be the only means of cure. In ordering and preparing 
food for the sick, the physician and nurse have each distinct 
duties. It is for the physician to determine what the pa- 
tient should eat, and for the nurse to follow his orders 
intelligently. If these orders are very explicit, the nurse 
needs only a knowledge of the principles of cooking ; but if 
they are indefinite, — if, for example, he orders a liquid 
diet, without specifying what foods are included under such 
a designation, — the nurse has need of some knowledge of 
the principles of invalid feeding. 

Liquid Diet, or Food for very Sick Patients. — A very sick 
patient may have more need of nourishment than a well 
person. An acute disease is usually accompanied by fever. 



282 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Fever indicates that the tissues are being rapidly burned 
out and destroyed. This creates a need of food with which 
to replace these lost tissues. Unfortunately, just at the 
time when the need of food is greatest, the digestive appa- 
ratus is likely to be out of order. It is the duty of the 
digestive organs to make insoluble foods soluble, and thus 
ready to be carried to the different parts of the body. This 
they can do in health. In sickness, however, their work, in 
part at least, must be done for them. Hence the very sick 
should, as a rule, be given only soluble foods. These may 
be naturally soluble, like albumen and sugar, or they may 
have been predigested. It is frequently necessary to have 
the food not only soluble, but also very dilute. In this 
form it is most easily absorbed. The large amount of 
water in dilute foods is valuable for the washing out from 
the system of the waste material which results from the 
excessive destruction of tissues. The sick, like the well, 
need proteids for building tissues, and also carbohydrates 
or fats for giving heat and energy. The first is best given 
to the very sick in the form of albumen, which is soluble in 
water, or of digested proteids, which are known as peptones. 
The first is found in meat juices, uncontaminated by indi- 
gestible substances, and accompanied by certain mild stimu- 
lants. White of egg is an almost pure solution of albumen, 
but is not very dilute. Milk whey contains a little albu- 
men. Peptonized foods can be prepared at home, or bought 
ready prepared. The heat-producing foods are usually given 
in the form of soluble carbohydrates. One of these is dex- 
trin, made by the action of heat on starch. It is found 
in the brown crust of bread or of toast. This can be dis- 
solved, and served as " toast tea." This familiar article 
of invalid diet is now being superseded by the malted 
foods which are everywhere on sale. These contain dex- 
trin and other soluble carbohydrates. The sugars are also 



THE BEDROOM 283 

soluble carbohydrates. As all starch is converted by the 
healthy body into grape sugar, before it is absorbed, this 
form of sugar is probably most easily digested. Starch 
should be given only when thoroughly cooked, and very 
dilute, as in gruels. Fats are never soluble. They are 
most digestible if emulsified, i.e. divided into tiny globules. 
Milk contains emulsified fat. Milk is usually included in a 
liquid diet. It contains albumen, sugar, and emulsified fat. 
It contains also, however, casein, which becomes solid in 
the stomach. This constitutes its chief fault for food for 
the very sick. If lime water be added to the milk, the curd 
formed in the stomach is not so large. Fruit juices are 
refreshing. While not themselves nourishing, the sugar, 
with which they are usually served, is so. They make a 
pleasing variety in the invalid's food, especially when 
served frozen. 

Semi-solid Food, or Food for Convalescents and Patients 
whose Digestion is not seriously Disturbed. — We should 
bear in mind that the very dilute foods are given because 
the digestion is impaired, and not because the patient does 
not need more nourishment. The moment he can digest 
more nourishing food, he should have it. When the doctor 
thinks the patient is able to digest it, he orders a semi-solid 
diet. This consists of the articles included under liquid 
food, and also of scraped meat, raw or soft-boiled eggs, egg- 
nog, egg lemonade, soups, milk toast, soft custards, and gela- 
tine preparations. Meats, unless scraped, vegetables, fried 
foods, and pastry should never be given. 

Full Diet. — When a patient is put upon full diet, the 
only duty of the nurse is to prepare attractive and palatable 
food. She is under no limitations except that of excluding 
notoriously indigestible dishes, such as fried eggs and fat- 
soaked foods. 

Serving Food. — In preparing food for a sick person, re- 



284 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

member that it should be served in the most attractive way 
possible. Beautiful dishes, a small vase of flowers, and 
dainty garnishings for food may be the means of making a 
person take food which he would otherwise reject. If the 
invalid is able to feed himself, the food should be served on 
a light tray, in light dishes so placed as to be easily reached. 
All hot food should be served hot. As it usually must be 
carried some distance before being served, it should be care- 
fully covered. Cold foods should be served really cold. 
Variety in foods, and especially in flavoring, is often essen- 
tial. Serve to the patient in courses if there are several 
dishes, and do not leave soiled dishes in the patient's room. 
The patient's mouth should be rinsed with a dilute solution 
of listerine after every meal. 

Exercise. — Each pupil should prepare a bill of fare, for 
one day, for a person on liquid diet, for one on semi-solid 
diet, and for one on full diet. Another useful exercise is 
the preparation of a tray for serving food to an invalid. 



Lessor VIII 

Recipes for Invalid Cookery 
(See also the last section in the chapter on Starchy Foods) 

Barley Water. — 4 tablespoons pearl barley, 1 quart 
water, sugar,- lemon juice, lemon rind and salt to taste. 
Wash the barley thoroughly and soak in water for several 
hours ; boil for an hour ; season ; strain ; reheat before 
serving. 

Toast Water. — Stale bread, boiling water. Heat the bread 
in the oven until it is brown and crisp ; break into pieces ; 
pour over it an equal volume of boiling water ; strain ; season 
with salt. Eeheat before serving. 



THE BEDROOM 285 

Egg-nog. — Yolk of 1 egg, f cup milk, 1 tablespoon sugar, 
2 tablespoons wine, 1 tablespoon lime water, speck of salt, 
white of 1 egg. Beat the yolk of the egg ; add milk, sugar, 
wine, lime water, and salt ; strain ; add white of egg beaten 
stiff. 

Albumenized Milk. — To the stiffly beaten white of an egg 
add one-half a cup of milk. Stir thoroughly or cover and 
shake. 

Egg Lemonade. — To a glass of lemonade add a well 
beaten egg or the beaten white alone and two tablespoons 
of whipped cream. 

Wine Whey. — Mix equal parts of scalded milk and sherry 
wine. When the curd forms, strain. 

Beef Essence. — Free one pound of round of beef from fat 
and bone; cut into small pieces* put into a Mason jar; add 
a pint of cold water, allow to stand for one-half an hour ; 
put into a pan of water and heat gradually to 130° F ; keep 
at about that temperature for three hours ; or, instead of 
heating, add a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid, and 
allow to stand for an hour, stirring occasionally; strain, 
season with salt. 

Beef Juice. — Broil a piece of beef until the juice begins 
to flow, turning it frequently ; cut into small pieces ; extract 
the juice with a hot potato ricer, and allow to run into a hot 
glass ; season with salt. 

Flour Gruel. — 1 tablespoon flour, 2 cups milk, salt to 
taste. Scald most of the milk in a double boiler ; thicken 
with the flour moistened with the rest of the milk. Cook 
forty minutes. 

Scraped Meat. — Cut round of beef into thin strips ; scrape 
with a sharp knife to free the fibre from the connective 
tissue; season the fibre with salt, and spread between thin 
slices of bread, or make into balls and cook slightly. The 
cooking can best be accomplished by putting the balls into a 



286 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

hot ungreased frying pan, and shaking them to keep them 
from sticking.. 

Junket. — 1 cup milk, 2 tablespoons sugar, 1 tablespoon 
wine, 1\ teaspoons liquid rennet. Dissolve sugar in wine ; 
heat milk to about 120° F; add wine and rennet; stand 
in a warm place until it forms ; chill ; serve with cream and 
sugar. 



APRIL 



THE LAUNDRY 

I. Preliminary Course 
II. Advanced Course 

By MARY B. VAIL 

Graduate and Late Instructor in Laundry Work in Pratt Institute ; 
now Instructor in Domestic Science in the Manual Training High School, 

Indianapolis, Ind. 



CHAPTER XII 

THE LAUNDRY 

By MARY B. VAIL 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

American Publications. — Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning (illus- 
trated), Ellen H. Richards and S. Maria Elliott (Home Science Pub. 
Co.). American Pure Food Cook Book and Household Economist; 
Department of Laundry, Mary B. Vail (Geo. M. Hill Co., Chicago). 

English Publications. — Teacher's Manual of Elementary Laundry 
Work, F. L. Calder and E. E. Mann (Longmans, Green & Co., London 
and New York). Mrs. Lord's Laundry Work for Scholars (T. Nelson 
& Sons, London). Laundry Work for Homes and Schools, Florence 
B. Jack (Whittaker & Co., Edinburgh and London). Fragments of 
Science (Water), Tyndall. 

Current Literature. — Nineteenth Century, vol. 41, pp. 224, 232; 
Cosmopolitan, vol. 18, p. 271 ; Review of Reviews, vol. 12, p. 541 ; 
Eclectic, vol. 125, p. 800; Temple Bar, vol. 109, p. 375; Westminster 
Review, vol. 147, p. 698; All the Year Round, vol. 13, p. 248, vol. 73, 
p. 13 ; St. James, vol. 11, p. 89; Leisure Hour, vol. 10, p. 727 ; Popu- 
lar Science Monthly, vol. 46, p. 649. 

Facts. 

I. Equipment for Laundry (for class of eight). — 12 
small fibre or wooden tubs, 1 large fibre or wooden tub, 8 
small rubbing boards, 1 wringer on large tub, 2 small 
wringers, 1 fibre or tin pail, 1 tin dipper, 1 clothes basket, 
1 clothes stick, 1 medium sized copper-bottom boiler, 6 long 
u 289 



290 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

benches for the tubs, 8 small skirt boards (3J to 4 ft. long), 
8 covers for kitchen table (blankets and unbleached muslin), 

2 clothes horses, 1 fringe brush, 3 soft brushes for flannel, 

3 whisk brooms for sprinkling; flat irons, 4 seven pound 
irons, 8 four pound irons, 8 five pound irons, 4 three pound 
irons, 8 Troy polishers ; 10 yds. cheese cloth, 3 roller hand 
towels, holders, wax, paper, old cloth, toilet pins, safety 
pins, tape ; 1 granite soap cooker, 1 granite starch cooker, 
1 teakettle, 1 dishpan, 3 large bowls (2 qt, 4 qt. 6 qt), 
8 small bowls (1 pt.), 2 tin measuring cups (for thirds and 
fourths), 6 tablespoons. 6 teaspoons, drying closet inside or 
posts, line and clothes pins for outside ; laundry stove ; if 
tubs are stationary, have not less than nine with hot and 
cold water connections ; stools should be supplied for short 
girls either for washing or ironing. 

II. Study of Materials. — Water, the chemist tells us, 
is a combination of hydrogen two parts and oxygen one 
part. We know it as the transparent, almost tasteless, liquid 
which falls from the clouds and is collected in lakes, rivers, 
cisterns, and wells for us. Sometimes we find it soft, as rain 
or river water, but if it has flowed over limestone it is hard 
water. When water falls as rain, it catches some of the air 
and the gases, especially carbon dioxide. This gas has the 
property of combining with lime and forming a soluble salt 
which in the water makes it hard. We know by the feeling 
of the water if it is soft or hard, also when we use soap in it. 
Soft water lathers at once, but hard water does not until all 
the lime in it has combined with the soap to form that curd 
or lime soap that you see on top of the water. The simplest 
way to soften water is by boiling, then the lime and gas 
separate, the gas goes off and the lime falls to the bottom. 
A familiar example is the lime or fur in the teakettle. Our 
grandmothers used wood ashes to soften hard water : to-day 
we use the active principle of the ashes — lye or sal-soda — for 



THE LAUNDRY 

the same purpose. These strong alkalies must be used with 
the greatest caution or the clothes will be injured. The 
milder alkalies, ammonia and borax, may be used without 
fear of harm but they are expensive. For best results we 
need soft water in the laundry, so hard water must be 
softened in some way. 

Soap is a combination of a fatty acid and an alkali. If 
well made, it has little more than a trace of fat or alkali 
left over. Strong or laundry soaps always have an ex< 
of alkali in them. Soap powders have a large amount of 
alkali in them, and liquid preparations are alkalies in solu- 
tion and water. The effect on the hands will tell you the 
nature of these compounds. The alkali takes up the oil in 
the skin and eats the skin as well as the dirt and the fabric. 
Soap decomposes in water, the alkali takes hold upon the 
oily dirt, while the fatty acid forms an emulsion and gives 
the water that milky look. 

Bluing is supposed to make the clothes white in lieu of 
sun and air. When clothes become yellow from care" 
washing and rinsing and we haven't a grass plot to bleach 
them in. we resort to bluing to overcome the yellow color. 
The first bluing used was indigo, a vegetable product. Xow 
ultramarine blue is more commonly used. It comes to us in 
little blue balls, blocks, or powder. This ultramarine was 
originally the stone lapis lazuli ground up. but it is now 
made chemically. Both indigo and ultramarine are in- 
soluble blues. The fine particles are held in suspension 
in the water and settling on the cloth give it the desired tint. 
Prussian blue comes as a liquid and gives us a bright blue. 
It is a salt of iron. With heat and a strong alkali it is 
changed to another salt of iron commonly known as iron 
rust. If clothes are well rinsed, no ill effect should follow 
its use. Perhaps to its careless use are due the fine rust 
spots that sometimes appear. Aniline blue is rarely used 



292 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

outside of the public laundry. It is a strong dye that will 
not set in an alkaline medium, hence thorough rinsing is 
necessary. The laundries usually neutralize any alkali 
with an acid before using the aniline blue. If the acid 
is too strong, the strength of the material is impaired. 

Starch is found in all vegetables in some stage of their 
growth. It is the food stored for the use of the young 
plant, and is abundant in the seeds and tubers, but may also 
be found in the leaves and stalks. Under the microscope 
starch is a grain varying in size and shape according to the 
plant from which it is taken. Being the stored food for the 
young plant, starch is in its most compact form, lacking 
water. This it readily absorbs, especially near the boiling 
point of water, and during this absorption or hydration it 
often increases to twenty times its volume. Raw starch is 
a glistening white powder insoluble in cold water, but more 
nearly soluble in boiling water. Its stiffening power makes 
starch useful in the laundry. Corn starch is most commonly 
used for laundry purposes, next wheat, then potato, and rice 
starch is used for fine work. 

Wax, the product of the bees, seems to fill up the iron and 
make it run smooth. 

III. Rules and Recipes. — Soap solution is a most con- 
venient way of using soap. To one small bar of white soap 
shaven fine, allow 2 quarts of water, let it boil until the soap 
is dissolved, use while hot. A cake of common yellow laundry 
soap shaven would require 3 or 4 quarts of water. 

Thin starch. In the granite pan put f cup starch, and 
i of level teaspoonful of lard, stir smooth with \ cupful of 
cold water, add gradually 3 pints of boiling water, stir- 
ring constantly. Let it boil well, then add 1 pint of cold 
water to thin and cool it. If it is still too thick, it may be 
further reduced. This starch will be right for ordinary 
uses. 



THE LAUNDRY 293 

Thick starch is used for collars, cuffs, shirt waists, and 
shirt work. Make J cupful of starch smooth with \ cupful 
of cold water, add i of a level teaspoonful of shaven white 
paraffin and 4 cupfuls of boiling water. Let this boil up 
several times and add a little bluing. 

Clear starch for fine muslins may be made, using one 
level tablespoonful of starch to one quart of water, let it 
boil w r ell. Eice starch is preferred for fine work. The 
water off of cooked rice may be used, or the starch may be 
made in the following manner. Wash 2 tablespoonfuls 
of rice, put it in a saucepan with 1 quart of w r ater and 
place it on the back of the stove where it will not burn or 
boil over. Stir it frequently at first, and let it cook until 
the rice is a pulp, then strain it through a flannel bag with- 
out squeezing. Dilute with cold water if necessary, and use 
it w r arm. 

Raw starch is often used instead of thick starch for col- 
lars, cuffs, etc. Make one tablespoonful of starch smooth 
with a little water, then add the balance of a pint of warm 
water. Use at once; if it stands and settles, stir it well 
before using again. 

Bran water may be used for delicate colors when soap 
would affect them. Tie ^ pound of bran in a cloth, and 
pour over it 2 quarts of boiling water ; when it cools, use it 
as you would suds. 

Taking out Stains. — Fruit stains, if fresh, will come out 
with boiling water. Stretch the stained part over a bowl, 
and pour absolutely boiling water through it from a height 
until the stain disappears. 

Coffee stains, if fresh, will yield to the same treatment as 
fruit stains. 

Tea and cocoa stains are hard to remove. Soak them in 
cold water and borax before using boiling water as for fruit 
stains. 



294 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Blood stains should be first soaked in clear cold water, 
then use soap and water. 

Milk stains should be washed out while fresh in cold 
water. 

Mildew, if not too old, maybe removed. Apply soft soap 
and powdered chalk to the spot. Keep it moist, and lay it 
in the sun. 

Ink stains may come out if they are soaked in milk for a 
day or two ; allowing the milk to sour on the goods rather 
helps than hinders the process ; but if the material is colored, 
it may also take out the color. 

The use of an acid for removing stains when other agents 
fail is not advised, for it attacks not only the stains but the 
fabric itself. If you wish to try an acid, proceed as follows : 
Fill a bowl with boiling water, over it stretch the stained 
part. Drop upon the stain a very little dilute hydrochloric 
acid, using a medicine dropper. Occasionally dip the stain 
into the water, then continue applying the acid until the 
stain disappears. Always have a second bowl containing 
ammonia and water to rinse the article in so that the acid 
may be perfectly neutralized. 

IV. Washing clothes is necessary from the points of com- 
fort, appearance, and health, both personal and public. 
Dirt is largely of an oily nature. The alkali of the soap 
combines with the dirt to form a soapy compound which is 
soluble, and is carried away in the water. Water is a great 
dirt carrier, and should be used in abundance for washing 
clothes. Soft water is preferred ; hard water may be soft- 
ened by boiling, by the judicious use of sal soda in solution, 
or by the use of a strong soap. Soaking clothes in soapy 
water for an hour or more before washing makes the work 
lighter. Never wash a tubful of clothes in the water in 
which they have been soaked. Wring them out into a clean 
suds, and with the rubbing board or the hands loosen the 



THE LAUNDRY 295 

dirt. If all the dirt is not removed by the rubbing, put a 
little soap on to the soiled part' before dropping it into the 
boiler. Have cold water and soap in the boiler, let the 
water heat and boil from ten to twenty minutes. The 
longer time is necessary for clothes from a sick-room, for 
disease germs are killed by boiling. Have ready warm, 
clean rinsing water ; have it warm because cold water would 
harden the soapy dirt on to the clothes, and necessitate rub- 
bing to remove it. Rinse the clothes in several waters, or 
until the water is clear. A generous supply of water is 
very essential, especially in rinsing to carry off all the dirt, 
and leaves the clothes white and clean. Make bluing in a 
small utensil and pour it into a tub of water until the water 
seems sky blue when taken in the hand. Solid blue must 
be tied in a flannel bag and squeezed out of it into the 
water. The bluing water must be used at once, not be 
allowed to stand and settle. Stir up the water well that 
the color may be even, shake out the articles to be blued, 
and put them into the water a few at a time. Wring them 
out at once, shake them and hang them to dry in the shape 
you wish them to be in when worn. A little work here will 
make ironing much easier. When dry, fold clothes, don't 
crush them into a basket. For sprinkling have a clean 
table, a bowl of tepid water, and a whisk broom, or use the 
tips of the fingers, to distribute the water in fine drops all 
over the garment. Fold and roll the article tightly, and 
cover it for several hours before ironing. 

V* Ironing is done for comfort and appearance, and is a 
very important part of the work. The table or board should 
be of convenient height for the ironer. It should be covered 
first with one or two thicknesses of heavy flannel or blanket. 
Felt may be procured of the laundry supply people. This 
should be tacked on to the boards. Over this should be tied, 
or pinned firm, fine unbleached muslin. On the table at the 



296 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

right of each ironer should be found a clean paper folded 
several times, also a piece of old cloth or cheese cloth, both 
to try and clean the iron on, also a bit of beeswax tied in a 
cloth, and an iron stand. When the iron is hot the wax 
may be rubbed lightly over it and then the iron rubbed on 
the paper to make it smooth. With these aids the iron 
should always be clean and cool enough not to scorch before 
it touches sheet or garment. First iron trimming, ruffles, 
and the parts that will muss least, then take the plainer parts 
of the piece. Fold garments and all pieces first lengthwise 
into a long strip, then crosswise, and hang them to air on a 
clothes horse, and let them remain until perfectly dry. If 
garments are not ironed dry and aired they will easily muss. 
If put away damp they may mildew, and if worn or put 
upon a bed may cause sickness. Embroidery must be ironed 
wrong side up over several thicknesses of flannel to bring 
out the design. To test irons for heat, touch them with a 
moist finger : if they hiss, they are hot ; if the sound is a 
short one, they are probably too hot. The laundress deter- 
mines the heat by holding the face of the iron about four 
inches from her cheek for a few seconds : if too hot for com- 
fort, it is too hot to use. 

VI. Care of Laundry and Utensils. — All utensils 
must be washed and wiped and left clean and dry after 
washing. The floor must be wiped up and everything left 
in order. Fibre tubs must be washed and wiped, wooden 
tubs in addition to this must be left with water standing in 
them to prevent their warping and leaking. The wringer 
must be wiped off, and the screws that hold the rollers 
together loosened. Occasionally the rubber rollers may be 
rubbed over with a few drops of kerosene on a cloth, to clean 
them. Kerosene eats rubber, so use it sparingly. Irons 
must be kept in a dry place, and always put away clean. 
Scrape the starch off with an old knife. A little fine salt 



THE LAUNDRY 297 

or scouring brick on a paper will scour them, when they 
need it. ' Bub the iron over the paper. When irons are put 
away for some time, rub them over with mutton tallow or 
vaseline, and wrap them separately in paper. All tinware 
must be thoroughly dried after washing, to prevent rusting. 
Experiments with Bluing. — Fill a test-tube half full of 
Prussian or aniline blue in solution, using it dilute, add a 
quarter of a teaspoonful of strong solution of sal soda, and 
heat to boiling point. The Prussian blue should change to 
the yellow brown salt of iron, rust. The aniline should 
lose its intense blue ; and ultramarine blue, if treated in 
the same way, will resolve itself into a white flocculent 
precipitate. 

OUTLINE : COURSE I 
Eight Fundamental Lessons 

Each of these lessons presupposes a two-hour period. If 
only one hour can be devoted to this work, take the theory 
for one lesson, and the practice for another. 

Children may bring their own clothes for practice work. 

LESSON 

I. Introduction. 

Talk on necessity of cleanliness. 
Talk on water, soap, and alkalies, with experiments. 
Washing bed linen. 
II. Talk on bluings. 

Taking out stains ; demonstration. 
Washing table linen. 
Ironing bed linen. 
III. Talk on starch. 

Make starch ; demonstration. 
Washing body linen. 
Ironing table linen. 



298 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



LESSON 



IV. Making starch ; class work. 

Washing body linen : night-dress. 

Ironing body linen : waist or drawers. 
V. Talk on dyed goods. 

Washing colored apron and stockings. 

Ironing night-dress and stockings. 
VI. Talk on clear starching. 

Making thin starch. 

Washing white apron and handkerchiefs. 

Air drying and ironing apron. 

Ironing colored apron and handkerchiefs. 

VII. Talk on wool fibre and shrinking of wool. 
Washing woollen underwear. 

VIII. Talk on silk. 

Washing silk handkerchiefs and ribbons. 

OUTLINE : COURSE II 

Eight Supplementary Lessons 

I. Making starch. 

Washing underskirt. 
II. Washing small gingham dress and shirt waist. 
Making starch. 
Ironing underskirt. 
III. Making thick starch. 

Eubbing starch into parts of shirt waist, and rough- 
dry collars and cuffs. 
Ironing gingham dress. 
IV. Ironing shirt waist and collars and cuffs. 
V. Making rice starch. 

Washing and clear starching fine muslin. 
VI. Washing and ironing embroidered linen. 
VII. Washing and ironing embroidered flannel, small 
shawl, or woollen dress goods. 

VIII. Washing laces ; steaming velvet. 



THE LAUNDRY 299 



Course I : Lesson I 

Bed Linen (Pillow Cases). — Introduction, including out- 
line of course and plan of work. 

Talk on cleanliness as a necessity from the points of 
appearance, comfort, and personal and public health. 

Talk on water with experiments in softening hard water. 

Temporary hard water can be softened by boiling. 
Permanent hard water cannot be softened by boiling. Both 
can be softened by the addition of an alkali or soap. Water 
for experimental purposes may be made temporarily hard 
by the addition of lime water, permanently hard by the 
addition of calcium sulphate, commonly known as gypsum. 

Talk on soap and alkalies. 

Practice Work. — During talks on water and soap have 
pillow cases soaking in warm soapy water. With a little 
rubbing wring them out of this into clean warm suds. Rub 
them on the board, put them through the wringer. Put all 
articles together into the boiler with a cold soapy water, 
heat gradually, and let them boil from ten to twenty minutes. 
Have the first rinsing water warm, the second may be cold. 
Put the articles quickly through a bluing water, and hang 
them to dry. Washing and rinsing must be done in indi- 
vidual tubs, boiling and bluing in one large boiler or tub. 
Wash out tubs, wipe tables, benches, and utensils, loosen 
screws of wringer, and leave room in perfect order. 

Course I: Lesson II 

Table Linen (Napkins). — Talk on bluing. Show differ- 
ent kinds of bluing, as purchased and in water ready for 
use. Demonstrate with test-tubes and heat the effect of an 
alkali (sal soda in solution) on Prussian and aniline blues 
to bring out the necessity of careful rinsing. 



300 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Take out fruit and other stains ; demonstration. 

Practice Work. — Take out stains and put napkins a-soak 
in warm soapy water. Dampen and roll up pillow case. 
With the help of pupils show the shaking of sheet or table- 
cloth to straighten the fibre. Wash napkins, boil, rinse, 
blue, and hang them to dry. 

Heat irons — if directly over a gas flame, wipe the mois- 
ture off several times before they become warm. Cover table 
with blanket and sheet, get out the paper, cloth, wax, and iron 
stand, and place at the right side of table. Shake and 
stretch pillow case into shape, and place it upon the board. 
Iron the hem first, then iron with the warp of the goods, 
first on one side of the pillow case, then the other, until per- 
fectly dry. Fold once lengthwise in the middle, then again, 
and iron each fold in. Hang pillow case upon the bars to 
air. 

Sheets are folded once lengthwise, then crosswise, bring- 
ing hems together. Sprinkle one-quarter yard from the 
ends, roll up, iron ends singly with a hot heavy iron, and 
balance of the sheet four folds together. 

Course I: Lesson III 

Body Linen (Waist and Drawers). — Talk on starch. 
Illustrate by pictures and with the microscope. Make 
starch for pupils while clothes are boiling. Demonstrate 
with a napkin or lunch cloth the folding aud ironing of a 
table-cloth and a napkin. 

Practice Work. — Put waist or drawers a-soak in warm 
suds. 

Dampen and roll up napkins. 

Wash body linen, boil, rinse, blue, starch, and hang it to 
dry. Put only the trimming of drawers into starch, rub it 
into them, and squeeze out the extra starch. The entire 



THE LAUNDRY 301 

waist may be starched. Heat irons. Cover table. Shake 
and stretch napkin straight, lay it right side up upon the 
table, having one hem away from you. Iron the hem first, 
then iron with the selvage. Turn the napkin and iron the 
wrong side. Fold the napkin right side out, selvages to- 
gether, and iron the fold in, fold again, making a long strip, 
then twice crosswise, ironing all folds in. If napkins are 
small they may be folded in thirds like a screen. Any em- 
broidery must be ironed on the wrong side over several 
thicknesses of flannel, and folded so the embroidery will be 
on the outside. Be sure that the linen is quite damp, irons 
are hot, corners square, and napkins folded true. Table 
cloths are ironed on the right side only, folded in the middle 
lengthwise, and ironed first one side and then the other 
until perfectly dry. They may be folded again like a nap- 
kin or to bring all three folds on the outside. A better way 
still is to roll the table-cloth lightly over a large roll, having 
it folded but once. 

Course I : Lesson IV 

Body Linen (Night-dress). — Talk on necessity of ironing 
articles perfectly dry and airing them well. 

Give directions for ironing and folding waist and drawers. 

Practice Work. — Put night-dress a-soak. 

Dampen and roll up waist and drawers. Have starch 
made by pupils. Wash, boil, rinse, blue, starch, and hang 
night-dress to dry. Put only trimming into the starch. 

Iron trimming of waist first, then take one section of the 
garment by itself, straighten it upon the table, lay the seam 
on the edge of the table toward you, and iron with the warp 
of the cloth. Arrange the other sections in like manner, 
never ironing beyond the seams, and the garment will be in 
perfect shape when finished. Fold the waist in a long strip, 
then crosswise until little but trimming appears. 



302 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Iron the band of the drawers first, then the trimming, and 
lastly the body of the garment, leaving every part perfectly 
dry. Any embroidery must be ironed on the wrong side to 
bring out the design, and lace must be ironed and then 
pulled out to soften it. 

Course I: Lessox V 

Colored Cotton Goods (Gingham Apron and Colored Stock- 
ings). — In recent years dyeing has greatly improved, and 
to-day we rarely find anything but "fast colors" in wash 
goods. If the color is doubtful, it is wise to wash a piece 
of the material to find out what treatment it needs. If the 
color runs, salt or white vinegar may set it. Use one table- 
spoonful of either to a gallon of water. Perhaps it will be 
necessary to use alum and water in the same proportions ; 
this also makes the material less inflammable. Ordinarily 
it will be sufficient to wash colored material in a cool or 
moderately warm suds, rinse it quickly, and hang it wrong 
side out to dry in the shade. Always use a pure soap, and 
never rub it upon the material. 

Practice Work. — Dampen and roll up night-dress. Make 
soap solution from direction given on page 292. Be sure that 
the soap does not contain an excess of alkali. Put enough 
of the soap solution into a tub of warm water to make a 
weak suds, wash the garment quickly, squeezing the dirt 
out rather than rubbing it, rinse quickly through several 
waters, acidify the last water if the color has been weakened 
by the soap, starch the garment, and hang it out at once, 
wrong side out, to dry in the shade. The sun is liable to 
fade the color. Colored garments should never be allowed 
to lie around wet. 

Put stockings into a clean cool suds and wash quickly. 
If the color is doubtful, put the foot only in at first, rub it 
well and soap it if necessary, turn the stocking wrong side 



THE LAUNDRY 303 

out, finish the foot, then quickly wash and rinse the whole 
stocking, and hang it to dry wrong side out. 

Iron the trimming of the night-dress first, then the 
sleeves, and lastly the body. The ironing board is needed 
here that the material may be ironed singly. Fold the 
night-dress into a long strip, the width of the trimming at 
the yoke, double the sleeves behind the yoke, leaving only 
the trimming visible at the side, fold once crosswise, and 
hang the garment to air. When ready to put away, fold the 
garment several times crosswise until little but the trimming 
shows on top. 

When stockings are nearly dry put the left hand inside of 
each and straighten it, then as the hand is withdrawn fol- 
low it with a warm iron held in the right hand. 

Course I : Lesson VI 

Clear Starching (White Apron and Handkerchiefs). — Clear 
starching was the dainty work our grandmothers did with 
fine caps and kerchiefs. The starch used is very thin and 
clear, hence the name. The material is always clapped 
until nearly dry, then ironed. 

Practice Work. — Dampen and roll up colored apron. 
Soak white apron and handkerchiefs in warm suds. Make 
thin starch with one level tablespoonful of cornstarch and 
one quart of water, boil well, and add a very little bluing. 
To find out that the starch is the right consistency, dip a 
piece of muslin into it and iron it. The muslin should 
seem like new, never be stiff or rattle. Squeeze the dirt 
out of the muslin, never rub it on the board. If it is soiled, 
rub it very gently between the hands. Boil, rinse well, 
blue, and put the muslin into the thin starch. Wring the 
muslin between cloths but do not twist it, shake and clap 
it between the hands until dry enough to iron. Stretch it 



304 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

into shape upon the board, iron first the strings, next the 
band, then the hem, and lastly from hem to band. Be sure 
that each part is left dry and free from wrinkles. If a part 
dries too soon, rub it lightly with a damp cloth and iron it 
again. Handkerchiefs should be soaked in a strong suds 
by themselves, especially if the owner has been suffering 
from a cold. They should be well boiled, but do not need 
starch unless they are very thin ; in that case put a little 
starch into the bluing-water. This makes the linen seem 
like new, no stiffer. Usually handkerchiefs are hung in 
the sun to bleach and dry, then they are sprinkled and 
ironed with a hot iron while yet quite damp. This stiffens 
them. Fine embroidered handkerchiefs may be clear 
starched, clajjped dry, and ironed wrong side up over 
several thicknesses of flannel. Fold handkerchiefs like a 
napkin, square and true. 

Iron colored apron as you did the white one, and hang it 
to air. 

Course I : Lesson VII 

Wool (Underwear). — Under the microscope we see that 
the wool fibre is composed of numbers of sheaths, about 
three thousand to the inch. The outer edge of each sheath 
or section is uneven and often jagged. These little points 
hook into each other when the fibres are slipped by, and 
when they would slip back to their original position the 
little hooks hold fast and the material shrinks. This 
change of position of the fibres is caused by rubbing or by 
the expansion and contraction of heat and cold. Poor 
soaps tend to thicken flannels ; and if soap is rubbed into 
flannel, it is hard to remove without shrinking the material. 
As we do not wish to have flannels shrink, care must be 
taken that conditions are right. 

Practice Work. — Make soap solution. Shake and brush 



THE LAUNDRY 305 

underwear to get all the loose dirt out of it. Make a suds 
in two or more tubs, having temperature of all the same — 
about 100° Fahrenheit, the temperature of the body — that 
is, so that the hand can very comfortably be held in the 
water. Add half a tablespoonful of ammonia for each gallon 
of water and put underwear a-soak for ten minutes or 
twenty. Squeeze the dirt out, never rub it. Put the 
garment through a wringer, do not twist or wring it by 
hand. Never rub soap on it. Put it through a second suds 
and a third if necessary. If a soiled part does not yield to 
this treatment, stretch it upon some smooth surface and 
with a soap solution on a soft brush, rub it. Einse the 
garment in several waters of the same temperature as the 
first. If the water is hard, add a little soap solution to 
soften it. Einse until the water is clear. Stretch the 
garment and hang it to dry where it is neither hot nor 
cold. Underwear should be stretched and pulled into 
shape occasionally while drying it, but it does not need to 
be ironed. 

Course I : Lesson VIII 

Silk (Handkerchiefs and Ribbons). — Silk under the micro- 
scope is a smoothly continuous fibre. It is easily injured 
by alkalies or heat. It needs the same treatment in the 
laundry as wool. 

Practice Work. — Make soap solution. Put silk a-soak 
in warm suds, unless the color comes out or runs, when it 
should be washed at once. Squeeze the dirt out of it. Put 
it into a second suds like the first and then through several 
rinsing waters. Do not wring or twist silk, squeeze the 
water out of it, or let it drip until nearly dry, then iron 
with a warm iron until dry. A hot iron will make silk 
stiff. If the silk has a crape-like weave, take the hand- 
kerchief from the water without wringing, straighten it 



306 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

on to the table and let it adhere to it until perfectly dry. 
Do not iron it. Plain silk may be treated in the same way. 
Ribbons must not be rubbed or squeezed together in the 
hand. Strip them through the hand, put them upon the 
table, and with a soft brush loosen the dirt, brushing always 
in one direction. Rinse them well, and while still wet, 
straighten them upon the table, let them adhere and remain 
until perfectly dry. 



EIGHT SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 
Course II : Lesson I 

Body Linen (Underskirt) . — Talk on ironing, folding, and 
airing, and the care necessary to produce good results. If 
conditions are right and pains taken, results will be satis- 
factory, but patience and practice are necessary for perfect 
work. 

Review of principles of washing. 

Practice Work. — Put underskirt a-soak in warm suds. 
Make starch. Wash garment, gather hem of skirt in the 
hand, and rub the edge of it on to the board ; if any part 
is still soiled, rub soap on to it before putting it into the 
boiler. Boil, rinse, blue, starch, and hang skirt to dry. 
Put only the hem and ruffles into the starch, rub it into 
them, and squeeze out the extra starch. Skirts should 
never be stiff around the hips. Hang the skirt to dry 
wrong side out. Attach it to the line by part of the hem, 
letting the rest hang so that the air can get in and dry it 
quickly. 

Course II : Lesson II 

Colored Goods (Gingham Dress and Shirt Waist). — Review 
of principles underlying laundering colored material. 



THE LAUNDKY 307 

Practice Work. — Dampen and roll up underskirt. Make 
soap solution. Make thin starch. In a warm, weak suds 
wash first the garment having least color, or the one you 
know to be fast in color. Possibly the second garment may 
be washed in the same water as the first, but it would be 
better to make a clean suds for it. If the hem of the dress 
is soiled, it may be gathered in the hand and just the edges 
rubbed on the board. Best results are obtained with least 
rubbing Avhen fine materials and delicate colors are con- 
cerned. Einse quickly, put entire garment into the starch, 
put through the wringer to get out the extra starch, shake, 
and hang it wrong side out in the shade to dry. Hang it so 
that the garment will be nearly in the shape you wish it to 
be in when ironed, but do not allow the gathers to hang 
down where the moisture will run into them, or the sleeves 
to get out of shape. Should you try a sample of material 
and find that the color was touched by soap, try washing 
it in bran water, using it just as you would soap-suds. 

Heat irons, get out skirt board, also paper, old cloth, wax, 
and iron stand. Have bowl of water and clean cloth con- 
venient. Put paper on the floor under the board to keep the 
skirt clean. Begin with the ruffles, taking the top one first, 
then the next. Keep the unironed part covered so that it 
will not dry out. After the ruffles iron the band, then put 
the board inside the skirt and iron one breadth or section 
at a time, taking first the hem, then the goods under the 
ruffles, then from ruffle to band. Move the skirt and take 
another section in like manner. Leave each part smooth 
and dry ; if the material dries before you get to it, moisten 
it slightly with a damp cloth just before ironing it. Hang 
the skirt to air ; when it is ready to put away, bring the 
folds in the middle of the front and the back together, then 
lay each side back upon itself, fan-like. Make several cross 
folds until little but the trimming shows. 



308 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Course II : Lesson III 

Thick Starching (Rough-dry Collars and Cuffs). 

Practice Work. — Make thick starch, set it in water to 
cool. Dampen and roll up gingham dress. Stretch and tie 
a damp cloth over a table or use the clean uncovered table. 
Put the bowl of starch in the middle of it and have several 
bowls of clean water with clean cloths convenient. Dip 
parts to be starched into water and wring very dry, that 
is cuffs, neckband, and plait on front of shirt waist, and 
rough-dried cuffs and collars. Stretch and straighten the 
cuffs and collars, lay them upon the table wrong side up 
and rub starch into them with the hand, continue rubbing 
until the starch can be seen on the right side. Be sure 
that the edges are full of starch. Clear off the extra starch 
with a clean damp cloth and hang the pieces on a string or 
attach them to a piece of cloth and place them before the 
fire to dry. Be sure that each piece hangs straight and in 
good shape. Treat the cuffs, band, and plait of shirt waist 
in the same way. Be careful not to get starch upon the 
other parts; if you should, clear it off with a damp cloth. 

Heat irons for gingham dress. Iron trimming at neck 
and sleeves first, then waist and sleeves, and lastly the 
skirt, the part that would muss most easily. Whenever 
possible, iron gingham or prints on the wrong side; they 
look more like new. Hang the garment to air before 
putting away. 

Course II : Lesson IV 

Ironing Thick Starch Work. — The dampening of thick 
starch work must be done three or four hours beforehand, 
by children if possible, otherwise by teachers. Beserve one 
or two articles to show process in class. 

Practice Work. — Never sprinkle thick starch work, but 



THE LAUNDRY 309 

dampen it by contact with a cloth wrung but half dry from 
cold water. Fold the collars and cuffs up in the damp 
cloth. Fold a damp cloth over the stiff parts of the shirt 
waist, sprinkle the balance, and roll or fold it up wrong side 
out. Cover the bundles and place them under a weight if 
possible. Heat both plain irons and polishers, and know 
that they are perfectly clean. Place the collar or cuff upon 
the table wrong side up, iron it lightly with the polisher, 
first one side and then the other, until it begins to stiffen ; 
then on the right side apply pressure to stiffen and polish ; 
work quickly and bring the weight of the body to bear upon 
the iron. Polish the wrong side a little, but leave the right 
side smooth and shiny. Do one piece after another and lay 
them aside. Use a damp cloth as little as possible, for it 
takes the starch out and leaves blisters. Leave any soiled 
spot until the piece is dry, then rub it lightly with a damp 
cloth. When ready to curl collars and cuffs take a common 
iron, pass it over the piece several times to warm it, then 
with it wrong side up grasp the edge of the piece with the 
left hand, the iron close upon it ; as the iron is drawn back 
follow it closely with the left hand, curling the piece as 
you go. Work from both ends of the piece, then hold 
it in shape in the hand for a minute and stand it on edge. 
Turnover collars must be ironed straight first, folded with 
the hands, and pressed with the iron at the back. If the 
domestic or dull finish is desired, a damp cloth brushed 
lightly over the piece will remove the polish. With a 
polisher iron the cuffs of the shirt waist, the part of the 
sleeve next the cuff, and the neckband. With a common 
iron take the yoke first, then the back, plait down the front, 
fronts, and sleeves. Leave no creases in the sleeves or any 
part. Polish the plait down the front, and hang it to air. 

Instead of thick starch, raw starch is often used for col- 
lars, cuffs, etc. After the shirt waist has been sprinkled, 



310 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

the cuffs, neckband, and plait may be dipped into the raw 
starch, the starch rubbed into the parts, the waist rolled up, 
and allowed to lie for half an hour. Straighten the cuff, 
put it on the table with a piece of muslin over it, iron until 
dry both sides, pulling the muslin off frequently. Dampen 
it thoroughly with a wet cloth, and iron again in the same 
manner, dampen and iron a third time, in this way cooking 
the starch in the cuff instead of out of it. The last time 
take off the muslin and polish the cuff. Finish the band 
and plait in the same way. 

Course II: Lesson V 

Clear Starching (Fine Muslin Sash Curtains). — The best 
clear starch work is done with rice starch ; it is very smooth 
and capable of great dilution. Infants' dresses may be 
laundered in this way, also fine muslin in caps, handker- 
chiefs, and the like. Starch must be made beforehand. 

Practice Work. — Make soap solution. 

Shake and brush dust out of curtains, put them a-soak 
in warm suds. Wash them gently, always squeezing the 
dirt out. Wash them in a second or third water. If fine 
muslin must be rubbed, put a piece of strong muslin under 
it and rub both together. When boiling it, tie it in a bag. 
A quantity of absolutely boiling water may be poured over 
it, but boiling is considered more cleanly. Rinse, blue, and 
put the pieces into thin starch. Lay them between cloths, 
and put them through the wringer. Clap each between the 
hands until it is dry enough to iron, straighten it upon the 
board, and iron smooth and dry, taking the hems first, then 
ironing with the warp. 

Course II: Lesson VI 

Embroidered Linen. — Eeview work with linen and silk. 
Embroidery silks are fast colors, but nevertheless require 



THE LAUNDRY 311 

careful laundering. They should be washed quickly, and 
the moisture absorbed by an old dry sheet. 

Practice Work. — Make soap solution. Wash embroid- 
ered linen quickly in a warm suds to which a teaspoonful 
of borax has been added. Do not rub the linen other than 
between the hands or with a soft brush. Plunge it up and 
down in the water. Einse it well and quickly, changing it 
from one fresh water to another without wringing. If the 
color runs, let the cold water pour through the linen, carry- 
ing the color with it. Put the wet linen between several 
thicknesses of old cotton cloth which will absorb the mois- 
ture. Shake the piece to hasten the drying. When it is 
perfectly dry, lay it face downward upon several thicknesses 
of old sheet. With a wet cloth go over a portion of the 
linen at a time, but over the embroidery quickly, so that it 
will not be moistened. Straighten the material, then with 
a hot iron and firm pressure dry and stiffen the linen, but 
do not steam the silk or it will lose some of its gloss. Iron 
always with the straight of the goods, never bias. Let the 
piece lie upon the table to air, do not fold it, but roll it over 
stiff paper. Fringed pieces should be shaken well while 
wet. When dry, brush the fringe with a soft brush and 
trim it. 

Course II: Lesson VII 

Wool (Embroidered Flannel or Small Shawl). — Eeview 
work with woollen underwear. 

Practice Work. — Make soap solution. Follow directions 
for washing wool given in Lesson VII, Course I. If the color 
has been weakened by the soap, add white vinegar to the 
last rinsing water, one tablespoonful to one gallon of water. 
Ammonia will strengthen the color of black goods. Hang 
the goods straight by the edge, and when nearly dry iron 
with a warm, never a hot, iron until perfectly dry. Press 



312 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

rather than shove the iron, and go over it again and again. 
Do not fold it, but hang it to air. If the flannel is embroid- 
ered, press it on the wrong side over several thicknesses of 
flannel. 

All woollen dress goods may be treated in the same way. 
Use plenty of water, and pass the goods from one water to 
another without wringing; draw the material through the 
hands, but do not crease it. Take it dripping from the last 
water, hang it by the edge, and when nearly dry iron it. 
Cover the table with cotton goods about the color of the 
material to be ironed, and place the goods on it wrong side 
up. A piece of colored cambric may be put between the 
goods and the iron, then iron until it is quite dry. Have 
the irons barely hissing hot, change them often, but do not 
press hard enough to flatten the threads of the material. 
After the material has aired, roll it, never fold it. 

Course II: Lesson VIII 

Laces, Chiffon, and Velvet. — Real laces will thicken 
slightly, even when washed with the greatest of care. It is 
best to keep them in powdered magnesia when not in use. 
The magnesia absorbs the oily dirt, especially when a hot 
iron is applied to them, the lace being between paper. 

Practice Work. — Make a warm suds of some pure soap. 
Add one teaspoonful of ammonia to each quart of water. 
Let the lace soak. If very yellow, let the lace lie in soapy 
water in the sun for several days, changing the water daily. 
Wash by squeezing the dirt out, rinse well in several waters, 
put into a weak solution of gum arabic, made by pouring one 
pint of boiling water over gum arabic the size of a large 
pea. This will give the lace a little body, but will not per- 
ceptibly stiffen it. Pat and pull it into shape, and pin it 
down upon flannel. Put a pin in every point and pearl of 
the edge, have it straight and true, and let it dry. 



THE LAUNDRY 313 

Black lace may be washed in one cup of strong coffee to 
which has been added one tablespoonful of ammonia. 
Einse first in clear, then in gum arabic water, pat and pull 
into shape and pin it down. 

Chiffon or veiling must be washed according to directions 
given for silk. Squeeze it gently from water to water so as 
not to pull the threads. Lay it between cloths to absorb the 
moisture, and when nearly dry iron with a cool iron on the 
wrong side. When soap touches the color, it may be that 
bran water will not. Use it as you would soapy water. 

Velvets must be brushed first to get the dust out, then 
invert a hot iron, put over it several thicknesses of wet 
cloth and one of dry. Draw the velvet across the iron, 
brushing the pile softly against the nap. The steam will 
raise the pile and take out the creases. 



MAY 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS; HOUSE CLEANING 
The Common Insect Pests of the House 

By S. MARIA ELLIOTT 

Boston, Mass., 

Joint Author with Mrs. Richards of "Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning" 



CHAPTER XIII 

HOUSEHOLD PESTS 

By S. MARIA ELLIOTT 
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Entomology for Beginners, Alpheus S. Packard ; Guide to Study of 
Insects, Alpheus S. Packard; A Text-Book of Entomology, Alpheus 
S. Packard ; Half-Hours with Insects, Alpheus S. Packard ; Manual 
of Invertebrated Animals, Huxley ; Forms of Animal Life, Rolleston ; 
Our Household Insects, Eclw. A. Butler ; Economic Entomology, 
John B. Smith ; Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects, Sir John 
Lubbock ; Structure and Life History of the Cockroach, Miall and 
Denny ; Romance of the Insect World, L. N. Badenoch ; Directions 
for collecting and preserving Insects, C. V. Riley ; Insect Life (simple 
directions for collecting, mounting, and breeding of insects), John 
Henry Comstock ; A Manual for the Study of Insects, John Henry 
Comstock ; Little People, Stella Louise Hook ; Life and her Children, 
Arabella B. Buckley ; Tenants of an Old Farm, Henry C. McCook, 
D.D. ; Injurious Insects of the Farm and Garden, Mary Treat; Farm 
and Garden Insects, William Somerville ; Insecta, Alpheus Hyatt and 
J. M. Arms; The Cricket on the Hearth, Charles Dickens; Young 
Folks' Pictures and Stories of Animals, Mrs. Sanborn Tenney. 

Experiment Stations' Bulletins (U.S. Department of Agriculture): 
The Principal Household Insects of the United States, L. C. Howard 
and C. L. Marlatt ; Insects affecting Domestic Animals, Herbert Os- 
born; Some Little-Known Insects affecting Stored Vegetable Prod- 
ucts, F. H. Chittenden. Circulars : The True Clothes Moths, Circular 
No. 36, C. L. Marlatt; House Flies, Circular No. 35, L. O. Howard; 
Mosquitoes and Fleas, Circular No. 13, L. O. Howard. Farmers' Bul- 
letins : Important Insecticides, No. 19, C. L. Marlatt ; Some Insects 
Injurious to Stored Grain, No. 45, F. H. Chittenden. 

317 



318 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Outline 



LE8SON 



I. Study of a Typical Adult Insect. 
Study of Indirect Metamorphosis. 

II. and III. Insects injurious or disagreeable to 

Persons. 
Lesson II. Mosquitoes and Flies. 
Lesson III. Bedbugs and Fleas. 

IV. and V. Insects injurious to Food or Food Sup- 
plies. 
Lesson IV. Cockroaches. 
Lesson V. Ants and Miscellaneous Pests. 

VI. and VII. Insects injurious to Clothing or Fabrics. 
Lesson VI. Moths and Silver-fish. 
Lesson VII. Carpet-beetles and Crickets. 



Materials. — Specimens of the insects to be studied: dry, 
alcoholic, and live specimens whenever possible ; live speci- 
mens in boxes with glass side, in tumblers, or in small 
bottles; specimens of eggs, egg capsules of cockroach, 
larvae, pupae if possible ; charts and diagrams ; magnifying 
glasses; needles, insect pins, or long slender " mourning" 
pins for separation of parts ; small pieces of cork to hold 
pins and mounted specimens ; bits of cardboard or thin wood 
on which eggs may be glued; samples of cloth eaten by 
moths, carpet-beetles, silver fish, cockroaches, etc.; samples 
of materials stained or damaged by bedbugs, cockroaches, 
and flies ; ants' larvae and pupae from house or field ; " lady 
birds " for comparison with carpet-beetle. 

Methods. 

Aims. — 1. Eecognition at sight of adult, pupa, larva, 
egg-case or egg. 



2. Knowledge of 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 319 

' (a) Most harmful form of each insect. 

(b) The favorite foods ; breeding 
places; time and season for 
breeding or devastation; habits 
of life. 

(c) How to prevent their attacks. 

(d) How to drive away or kill the pests 
when they are present. 

(e) How to repair the damage inflicted. 
Processes. 

1. Examination of live and dead specimens. 

2. Examination of all forms of each insect, whenever these 

are obtainable or widely different from adult. 

3. Study of pictures, if specimens not practicable. 

4. Collection and rearing — to familiarize form, number of 

progeny, and rapidity of development. 

5. Examination of articles damaged by insects — note char- 

acter of such damage, whether stain, odor, or destruc- 
tion of material. Injury or disease of person. 

6. Study of materials and apparatus for prevention or ex- 

termination. Suggestions for other apparatus which 
might be used. 

7. Study of applications which relieve or cure injury to 

person. 

8. Cautions for use of materials. 

9. Oral and written descriptions. Sketches and diagrams 

of insects and apparatus. 
10. Application of principles at homes and comparison of 
results. 

Experiments. — Breed each form studied. Watch meta- 
morphosis and rapidity of development. 

The making of parti-colored larval cases by moths, from 
different colored cloths. 



320 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Experiment with different colored flannels and different 
materials to find favorite food for moths and carpet-beetles. 

Try effect of Mayweed (Anthemis cotula) ; chamomile 
(Anthemis arvensis) or (Anthemis nobilis) ; feverfew (Chrys- 
anthemum parthenium) and the common white daisy (C. 
leucanthemum). See if they can replace the imported insect 
powder. 

Note. — Breeding cages may be made out of wooden boxes with a 
piece of glass fitted tightly into one side, or arranged to slide up and 
down or from right to left in a groove. This should have a layer of 
moist sand in the bottom. Most insects require moisture. 

A flower pot, with moist soil, and a lamp chimney covered with 
cheese cloth or thin muslin will answer for a cage. 

For mosquitoes place in cage a small dish of water. For 
fleas omit the moisture until need of it is shown. Each 
insect should have a separate breeding place. Furnish each 
insect with the food he chooses when inside the house. 

Suggestions to Teachers. — Encourage pupils to make 
collections from their homes. This may be done so deli- 
cately that their sensitiveness is not aroused. They do this 
in order to learn how to prevent and remedy in the future. 

Alcoholic specimens are easier to manipulate for examina- 
tion of certain parts, but these are usually changed in color ; 
and hairy portions do not show well. Have both alcoholic 
and dry specimens. 

Keep dry specimens for examination in tin boxes or glass 
bottles, and sprinkle a little insect powder over them. 

Especial cautions must be emphasized concerning the use 
of liquids with inflammable vapors. The vapor of the 
naphthas is heavy and will settle toward the floor. If used 
in large quantity on carpets, the vapor may pass through the 
floor and collect in the room beneath, as in the cellar. Ex- 
plosions have occurred in cellars thus affected, when a light 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 321 

was brought in. Corrosive sublimate is a deadly poison 
when taken internally. Antidotes for poisons should be 
taught in emergency lessons. 

Sulphurous vapors are irritating to the mucous membranes 
of persons, bleach moist fabrics, and tarnish many metals. 
Be careful in the use of sulphur for purposes of fumigation 
— danger of fire, of irritation, tarnish, and bleaching. 

Turpentine vapor takes longer than naphtha to evaporate, 
and will be detected from furniture in a warm room for 
some time. It is an irritant to the skin of certain persons. 

Be careful that live specimens do not escape. Examine 
in small vials or small boxes, where they can be controlled. 

Lesson I 

Materials. — Typical insects of large size. The locust or 
" grasshopper," or the large cockroach will show the char- 
acteristics of the insects with direct metamorphosis. 

The butterflies or moths furnish examples of insects 
giving indirect metamorphosis. 

Magnifying glasses. 

German insect pins or long, slender " mourning " pins or 
needles. 

Flowers of Pyrethmm or related species. 

Samples of pure insect powder. 

Diagrams and charts for illustration of parts and related 
forms. 

General Information or Introduction. — The healthy house 
is the clean house. The clean house must stand upon clean 
foundations, amid clean surroundings. It must be built of 
clean materials, supplied with clean air, clean water, clean 
food, and clean furnishings. All of these must then be 
kept clean in order that the clean occupants may reach that 
height of sanitary cleanness which is health. If all houses 



322 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

at all times could show a bill of health with the above items, 
there would be no need of any study of household pests. 

It is because any house may sometimes depart from the 
standard that it is necessary to study the forms, life history, 
and habits of insects which invade the house, and the pre- 
ventive and remedial methods which govern the protection 
of the household and household property. Only a few 
species out of the many which the insect world furnishes 
come under the head of Household Pests. 

The student of domestic science should seek all possible 
information concerning insect life in general, besides that 
special knowledge which applies to the few which are likely 
to be met with as foes. 

The life history of insects is especially interesting because 
the periods of growth or metamorphoses are often more 
apparent than in the higher animals and man. Four dis- 
tinct stages appear — egg, larva, pupa, imago. 

When between the egg and the adult there is a stage 
where no feeding and no movement from place to place 
goes on, the changes or the metamorphosis are said to be 
" indirect " ; where between egg and adult there is no quies- 
cent stage, the metamorphosis is "direct" Some writers 
still retain the older terms " complete " for " direct " ; " in- 
complete" for " indirect." 

The egg is always minute, sometimes microscopic; it 
gives birth to the larva, commonly known by one of several 
names, grub, worm, maggot, caterpillar, wriggler, etc. The 
larva may or may not moult once or several times before 
passing into the next stage, the quiescent or pupal form. 
Each moult means an increase in size, for when the little 
body gets too big for its skin, a new, soft, and flexible skin 
has already formed beneath the old. The old skin is rup- 
tured, and the larva emerges. Man has to remove his old 
clothes and then put on the new. Insects come out of their 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 323 

old clothes already dressed in the new suit, perfectly fitted 
externally and internally. 

After a while, the exact length of time governed largely 
by conditions of food and warmth, the larva encloses itself 
in a case or sac made either from new materials foreign to 
the body, or of the dried and hardened skin of the larva 
itself. 

This is the pupa, called chrysalis in the butterfly and 
nymph in the honey-bee. No food is now taken, and there 
is no movement except slight muscular contractions when 
the pupa is disturbed. 

At last the pupal period is past, and out from the case 
comes the imago or full-grown, perfect insect, — at first weak 
and trembling, but rapidly becoming used to its new body 
and new conditions of life. 

In cases of direct metamorphosis the young differ very 
little from the adult except in size, the changes being so 
gradual that to the casual observer they are unnoticed. 
The most obvious difference in some cases is the presence 
of wings in the pupa and imago where they were absent in 
the larva. All stages feed. Many adults live only a few 
days after emerging from the pupa. They reproduce their 
kind and die. The time intervening between the egg and 
adult stages varies from a few days with many insects to 
seventeen years with the Cicada. 

Insects have bodies made of three segments, which may 
be so nearly united that they are distinguished with diffi- 
culty, or they may be plainly shown as in the wasps and 
ants. These three segments are again divided into rings, 
the normal number being thirteen. It is seldom that this 
number can readily be determined because two or more are 
often consolidated. 

The first segment, or the head, bears the usual appendages, 
eyes, antennae, and mouth parts ; the middle, or thorax, bears 



324 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

the legs and wings, if the latter are present; the last, or 
abdomen, may or may not bear certain appendages for pro- 
tection, for aids in locomotion or for digging. 

The typical insect has three pairs of legs and two pairs 
of wings. Both pairs of wings may be membranous and 
flexible, or the upper or front pair hardened into wing 
covers as in the beetles. 

The segments are united by flexible joints which aid 
greatly in the rapid movements characteristic of most 
insects. 

Not alone the body, but also the appendages are ringed or 
jointed. The entire structure shows admirable adaptability 
to the conditions under which insect life exists. 

Insects take in air through small slits or holes, called 
spiracles, on each side of the abdomen. Anything which 
partly or completely fills these spiracles stops respiration 
and stupefies or smothers the insect. Hence the effect of 
powders, oil, etc. 

The antennae, preeminently, are organs of touch and in 
many cases are extremely long and sensitive, enabling their 
possessors to be warned of impending danger or disagree- 
able conditions long before actual harm is done. Some 
insects show an acute sense of smell, but just what parts 
respond to this stimulus is not known. 

The organs of hearing are sometimes at the bases of the 
antennae, and sometimes on the wings. Some insects show 
extreme sensibility to sound. 

The mouth parts of insects vary in number and show 
wonderful modifications in structure according to the char- 
acter of the food upon which the insect lives in each stage 
of larva or adult. In the former, they are used chiefly like 
shears for cutting or biting and are hard and horny ; in the 
latter they may be adapted for the cutting or biting of solids, 
or for the sucking or lapping of liquids. Then there are 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 325 

parts which help to catch, to kill, and to hold the food. 
Some carnivorous insects secrete fluids which stun, kill, or 
partially dissolve the victim before they feed upon it. 

Most of the insects which infest the household may be 
reared in captivity and their metamorphoses watched and 
studied. Such study is intensely interesting even in those 
cases where the presence of the free insect arouses only dis- 
gust and murderous desire. 

Probably all insects were originally out-door forms and 
the few have become in-door pests because of the favorable 
conditions for protection and food there offered. Their 
food was primarily raw vegetable juices, but some have 
already found an entire animal diet more to their taste, 
while others are pleased with variety in their bill of fare, 
taking a taste of blood or of cooked foods if occasion serves. 
A few, like the bedbug and flea, are such lovers of blood 
that they have well-nigh become parasites on man or the 
warm-blooded animals. 

"In the case of the clothes moths, the larvae of all of 
which can, in case of necessity, still subsist on almost any 
dry animal matter, their early association with man was 
probably in the role of scavengers, and in prehistoric times 
they probably fed on waste animal material about human 
habitations and on fur garments. The fondness they exhibit 
nowadays for tailor-made suits and expensive products of the 
loom is simply an illustration of their ability to keep pace 
with man in his development in the matter of clothing from 
the skin garments of savagery to the artistic products of the 
modern tailor and dressmaker," writes C. L. Marlatt in 
"The Principal Household Insects of the United States." 

Insect Powder. — Insect powder, which is so commonly 
used both for the prevention and extermination of insect 
pests, is made from several species of Pyrethrum or Chrysan- 
themum the O. roseicm furnishing the powder known as 



326 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Persian insect powder. Other names for the same powder 
or for the same use are Dalmation and buhach. The Cali- 
fornian buhach is especially effective. The powder is made 
of the pulverized flower heads. It is not poisonous to 
animal life except in the case of insects. Adulteration is 
easy and common, as there are many related species which 
may be used without detection by the casual observer and 
which are less expensive. The pure powder should be used, 
for much less is required. 

The Pyrethrum may be grown in most climates favorable 
to the ordinary camomile plants, and the country housewife 
may well experiment with her mayweed and feverweed to 
see if they will not assist her in ridding the house of 
troublesome insects. 

Lesson II 

Flies and Mosquitoes 

Materials. — Insect powder, pennyroyal herb and oil, 
quassia chips, Chinese incense sticks, molasses, black pepper, 
egg, cooking soda, aqua ammonia, borax, salt, traps (home- 
made and patented), fly-drivers (home-made and patented), 
whisk broom, bits of meat " blown " by flies, liquids infested 
with fly " maggots " or pupae, atomizer, plates. 

Flies 

Diptera — Muscidae— Musca Domestica and Others Flies are 

a disagreeable, irritating pest to persons, and by their eggs 
they contaminate food supplies. Worst of all, their feet are 
admirably adapted for picking up disease germs, which may 
be carried, here as well as on the proboscis, from person to 
person, or from putrefying matter to person or food. This 
is true especially in cases of typhoid fever, where, as is 
often the case, the faeces, not disinfected, are thrown into 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 327 

the common privy, or allowed to stand uncovered. This 
last is the chief reason why flies should be kept out of the 
house. Especially is there great danger of such carriage of 
contagion, where there are babies, as they are unable to 
protect themselves, and their delicate membranes of eyes, 
nostrils, and lips are more sensitive than those of adults. 

Many cases are on record where the germs of consumption 
have been found in the bodies and in the droppings of flies, 
in rooms occupied by consumptive persons. 

It is true that flies are scavengers, and it is their work to 
aid in ridding the world of filth ; but we do not wish them to 
deposit the results of their scavenging upon ourselves or 
upon our food. 

There are a number of species which may be found in 
houses, but the most abundant is the true house fly, which 
cannot bite or pierce the flesh, its mouth parts being adapted 
simply for lapping liquids. Some of the stable flies, however, 
have mouth parts which can pierce the skin, and they often 
come into the house. It is not necessary to distinguish 
between the species, as all should be kept out, if comfort, 
economy, and health are to be maintained. 

The metamorphosis is indirect. The adults do not need 
description, although they well repay close observation and 
study, especially the head and feet. The favorite breed- 
ing place is horse manure, but the female will lay her eggs 
in all kinds of manure, as well as in any moist decaying 
matter — meat, fruit, garbage of all kinds. One dirty 
stable may furnish flies to a whole neighborhood. Dirty 
streets, neglected back yards, uncovered garbage barrels, 
invite the parent fly to deposit there her eggs. Each 
mother fly may lay over a hundred eggs at one time, and 
these pass through their four stages from egg to adult in 
from ten to fourteen days. The enormous numbers of flies 
are thus easily accounted for. 



328 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

The larva is a long, segmented form, larger at the anal 
end, but showing no head except the small antennae. Its 
mouth parts are hooks which aid in movement as well as in 
eating. 

The adults remain torpid during the cold weather, reap- 
pearing in May or June, but usually not laying their eggs 
until August. Thus the greatest danger to food supplies 
which invite egg-laying is in this month. 

With this insect, prevention is preeminently important. 
In cities the pest may be greatly diminished by strict atten- 
tion to stable, street, and back-yard cleanness. The prompt 
collection of horse droppings from the street or stable; their 
storage in tightly covered receptacles, or the covering of 
them with lime when exposed; the burning of garbage; 
cleanness of yards, sheds, etc. ; food materials kept well 
covered that no eggs may be deposited ; no wet places left to 
furnish them food, — all these are absolutely necessary 
before diminution in numbers can be hoped for. 

Another preventive measure is early and complete screen- 
ing of doors, windows, and chimneys even, for in many 
localities and in houses where there are open fire-places 
the chimneys furnish comfortable shelters from wind and 
rain, while the smell of food draws the flies down into the 
house. 

The common objection of the "men folks" that screens 
keep flies in rather than out is partly true. This may be 
overcome by making a few conical holes near the top of the 
screens, from the inside. These should be of such shape as 
would be made by a sharpened lead pencil, the large end 
opening into the room inviting the flies to walk in; the 
small end allowing them to squeeze through into the sun- 
shine. They are seldom able to return in reverse order. 
Screens, too, so lessen the air and light supply and impair 
pleasant views, that their use is a doubtful blessing. 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 329 

Flies are usually clay-fliers, and as they prefer light and 
revel in sunshine, rooms should be occasionally darkened 
with only a small aperture into the open air or into a 
lighter room. The flies will seek the light or they may be 
forcibly encouraged to leave. Perhaps there is no better 
fly-driver than the many long, narrow strips of newspaper 
tied to a flexible stick. These switch and rustle so angrily 
that the flies are frightened by both noise and movement, 
and seek to escape into the light. 

Various traps, from the tumbler of soap-suds covered with 
a perforated paper or card, the underside smeared with 
molasses as a bait, to the more elaborate varieties of wire 
gauze and other devices, are effective to a greater or less 
degree. " Fly-papers " may be put under the head of traps. 
The ordinary whisk broom may be effectual to kill indi- 
vidual flies when they would escape from a smooth surface. 
It acts like the wire " spatter." 

Certain mixtures are recommended to attract, to stupefy, 
or to poison them ; to insure death the flies should afterward 
be collected and burned. Two of these are given. Beat 
together the yolk of an egg f a tablespoonful of molasses, and 
the same of finely ground black pepper; spread thin. 

Boil \ ounce quassia chips in 1 pint water; mix with 
this 4 ounces molasses; place in shallow plates. 

Preventive Measures. — Strict and thorough care of stables 
and streets, cleanness in house and surrounding, absence or 
disinfection of breeding-places, early and thorough screening. 

Remedies. — Drive out into light; darkened rooms with 
small outlet into the light; traps, stupefying mixtures. 

Mosquitoes 

Diptera Culicidae — Culex pungens and Others. — The mos- 
quito is by some persons considered to be a pleasing 



330 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

musician, by others a torment, and by others still an 
enemy armed with no mean weapons. 

The adult is too common an insect to need description. 
Its habits, however, are unknown to many, while its larval 
and pupal forms are seldom seen or recognized as such by 
any but the student. The adult mosquito is a land insect, 
feeding only upon liquid food which it sucks up through its 
proboscis or tubular tongue. It lays its eggs, however, upon 
the surface of water, because its larva and pupa live only 
in water. They require atmospheric oxygen for respiration. 
This they get just at the surface of their watery home, and 
take it in through a special tube called a respiratory siphon. 
The long slender abdomen is so supple and the movements 
so jerky that the mosquito larvae are familiarly called 
" wrigglers." 

The natural food of mosquitoes is no doubt the juices of 
plants, and blood only a luxury; indeed, the male often lives 
his little span of life without any nourishment, and the 
female does not necessarily take human or other warm blood 
at any time. 

Although there are upwards of thirty species recorded in 
the United States, to most persons a mosquito is a mosquito, 
and scientific differences have no interest. 

It is supposed that the eggs are laid early in the morning 
before daylight. They are fastened together in masses of 
various shapes, in rows, with three to forty eggs in a row, 
so that in one egg mass there may be over four hundred 
eggs. The individual eggs are minute, a little broader at 
the bottom than at the top, whitish in color except at the 
tip, where they are a dark gray-brown. 

The changes from egg to adult may be passed through in 
ten days under favorable conditions, but in cold weather 
or cold places this time may be greatly prolonged. The 
eggs, however, often hatch in less than sixteen hours. 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 331 

The larvae leave the eggs from the under side, and are thus 
in the water immediately, where they live until the adult 
stage. 

These two facts in the life history of Culex lead us to the 
most important preventive measures. Because they hatch 
so quickly, and in such numbers, great precaution must be 
taken to promptly abolish all favorable breeding places. 
Because they live in the water and still must breathe our 
atmosphere just at the surface, if we can make it impossible 
for them to get this air we shall kill the larvae. If we can 
prevent their breeding or kill the larvae, we shall rid our- 
selves of the adult pest. 

Any quiet stretch of water may invite the mother insect 
to deposit her eggs. An uncovered tub of rainwater, a 
forgotten pail of water left out-of-doors over night, a stag- 
nant dooryard or barnyard pool, a water tank, a sink drain 
emptying upon saturated ground, or the privy vault where 
liquid sewage stands, — all of these and similar places, to 
say nothing of swamps and brackish marshes, still ponds or 
lakes, may become stocked with mosquito larvae. They 
lay their eggs only on still water. Eunning water or tanks 
which are kept agitated by any means are exempt from 
mosquitoes. 

Complete drainage and care that no available breeding 
place be carelessly left about the house or in the vicinity 
is of greatest importance. 

Breeding places that cannot be removed should have their 
surfaces covered with kerosene. This not only catches the 
adult females as they attempt to lay their eggs and " before 
the eggs are laid," but it prevents the larvae from obtaining 
air, and, therefore, they die in the water. For ponds and 
lakes where kerosene would be objectionable, certain fish 
may be introduced, which will feed upon the larvae. About 
one ounce of kerosene to every fifteen square feet of water 



332 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

surface, with monthly renewals, has been found to be effi- 
cient. 1 It is far easier to keep mosquitoes out of the house 
than to kill them after they are inside. Complete screening 
of windows, doors, and beds comes first among remedial 
measures. Strong odors are disagreeable to them, so that 
burning incense sticks, insect powder, or other fragrant 
smudges may clear a room of the pest. The herb penny- 
royal, Hedeoma, either fresh or dry, or the oil of the same, 
is also effectual. 

The adults often hibernate during the cold months in 
cellars or outbuildings. Sometimes they are found on ceil- 
ings in such quantities that they may be caught by placing 
under them cups of kerosene, and scraping them into the 
oil or by holding a lamp under them. 

Some persons seem to be immune to the " sting " or "bite" 
of mosquitoes, objecting only to their monotonous hum ; others 
feel a momentary irritation from the puncture; while others 
suffer pain and inflammation. The irritation may be allayed 
and inflammation reduced by applications of cooking soda, 
borax, ammonia water, moist salt, and any cooling lotion. 

Preventive Methods. — Breeding places abolished, breed- 
ing places covered with kerosene, agitation of water, fish in 
bodies of water. 

Remedies. — Screens, smudges, strong odors. 

Lesson III 

Bedbugs and Fleas 

Apparatus. — Kerosene, naphtha, corrosive sublimate tab- 
lets, hot water, insect powder, varnish, feathers, bulb 
syringe, spring-bottom oil can ; pieces of wood and bedding 
showing stains from mouth secretions and excrement. 

1 "The Principal Household Insects of the United States." — L. G. 
Howard and C. L. Marlatt, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Div. of 
Entomology, Bull. 4. 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 333 

Bedbugs 
Hemiptera — Cimicidae — Cimex lectularius. 

" Nature never loses a crack or a crevice, mind you, or a joint in a 
tavern bedstead, but she always has one of her flat-plattern live time- 
keepers to slide into it." — Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

Since the above sentence was written by our genial Dr. 
Holmes the metal bedstead has largely superseded the 
wooden one with its many cracks and crevices. Yet " No 
bedstead has yet been made which does not afford it 
shelter/ 5 says John B. Smith in his " Economic Entomol- 
ogy/ 5 as late as 1896. 

Its presence in a country house may be considered a sign 
of filth and neglect, but it cannot be thus construed in a 
city house. Yet, although its occasional appearance in the 
latter may be excusable, its continuance means inexcusable 
carelessness, and should be thought a disgrace ; for, when 
once seen and known, watchfulness and proper care will 
exterminate it. No easy methods, however, will avail. 
The housewife must fight for her victory. 

Conditions in cities favor the introduction of this human 
parasite into the houses. It may be brought in on clothing 
out of crowded street or steam cars ; it is apt to get into 
trunks and bags during travels ; new furniture even may be 
infested ; or the bug may migrate from some neighboring 
house. They have been seen to drop from the holes of cane- 
seated chairs. When a house is vacant or closed for a long 
time, and the food supply is thereby unfavorable in kind or 
quantity, they often travel along walls, water-pipes, roof- 
gutters, etc. Apartments are often suddenly or continually 
overrun from such sources. 

However disgusting the subject may be, it is wisdom to 
know the possible, and how to remedy what we may not be 
able to prevent. 



334 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

The bedbug, unlike most insect pests, has been associated 
with man since the earliest times on record. The ancient 
peoples of Asia, the Romans, and other nations were familiar 
with it and its habits. In some parts of the United States 
it is known as the " chinch" bug, although this name be- 
longs rather to an allied species which does not trouble the 
housewife. Other names are descriptive, as "red coats/' 
" chintzes," etc. It probably, like the real " chinch ," which 
feeds upon vegetable juices, was once a strict vegetarian. 
Like other insects which have long lived a parasitic life, it 
has almost lost its wings, for which man should be thankful. 
It is much easier to fight a foe that must depend upon legs 
rather than wings to effect an escape. 

The metamorphosis is direct, the adult differing from the 
young chiefly in color and size. 

The body is mostly abdomen, which, unless distended with 
blood, is flat and scarcely thicker than a sheet of thin paper, 
so that there is seldom a space so narrow that it cannot be 
invaded by a bedbug. Its head is set in a hollow and pro- 
tected by extended flaps. The antennae are jointed and 
hairy on both sides. It has the characteristic " buggy " odor, 
which aids in the detection of its whereabouts. The adults 
are reddish brown tinged with black ; the young, a yellow- 
white changing into brown. 

The eggs are minute, white, oval bodies with a low rim 
around one end. This end acts as a lid, and is pushed off 
by the escaping larva. 

Cimex is extremely prolific, laying several batches of eggs 
during one season, and the eggs hatch usually in about a 
week. With such a pest and such progeny " eternal vigi- 
lance is," indeed, "the price of liberty" to the housewife. 

Like the cockroach, the bedbug abhors light and conceals 
itself during the daytime. It naturally hibernates during 
the cold months, beginning active life with the return of 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 335 

warm weather ; yet in warm city houses it may remain active 
all winter. April is perhaps the month common to most 
parts of our country for the beginning of their breeding 
season. 

If blood is wanting, the bedbug may feast upon the 
paste on papered walls, and picture moulding often forms 
its quiet, dry, undisturbed breeding place. This shows that 
it can live on very scanty food, when the dust collected in 
cracks and crevices is sufficiently moist for its needs. In- 
deed, specimens have been kept in sealed vials in laborato- 
ries for more than a year. 

The adult is furnished with a fleshy underlip or beak, 
which holds four hard and sharp filaments called setae. 
These puncture the skin and pierce the flesh by a sawlike 
movement while passing over each other. The beak is 
pressed closely to the wound, and through it the blood is 
drawn. It is easy to see how these mouth parts might 
carry contagion from man to man, or from tainted flesh to 
man. 

Some persons are unaffected by the bite of this insect, not 
feeling the puncture nor knowing any swelling or irritation. 

Others feel the action of the setae, and to some the bite is 
decidedly poisonous. The fluids secreted in the mouth 
enter the wound, and add their irritating action to that 
occasioned by the setae. 

Fortunate the city dweller who has never seen this pest 
in his house ; but with persistent, intelligent watchfulness 
even so wary and secretive a foe may be outwitted. 

Prevention should begin by brushing and shaking the 
clothes, when one has been in suspicious places. Articles of 
furniture should be carefully inspected, whether new or 
second-hand, especially the latter, for auction rooms and 
similar places are, from the decidedly cosmopolitan char- 
acter of their possessions, very apt to be infested. 



336 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Any house or tenement should be carefully inspected be- 
fore occupation. Look for the pests in cracks, in torn or 
loose wall-papers, and along picture mouldings. If there are 
signs of their former presence in the specks left from their 
excrement or mouth secretions, watch incessantly for their 
reappearance. Never let the enemy catch the housewife 
off her guard, for a day's advantage may mean the infesta- 
tion of an entire room or house. 

Cleanness everywhere, freedom from dust and fluff — this 
alone means freedom from insect pests. 

If prevention prove unsuccessful and the enemy be found, 
declare a daily warfare until it is vanquished, and then — 
watch ! 

All eggs must be destroyed before any permanent success 
is gained. Bedsteads furnish the favorite breeding places 
as well as feeding places by night, and hiding places by 
day. They are the chief battle-ground. An occasional coat 
of thin varnish over all the woodwork under the mattress 
helps to drive away adults and to kill eggs. 

Boiling water will kill both adults and eggs if it touches 
them. This may be used wherever it will not injure the 
finished furniture or spoil fabrics. Slats to bedsteads may 
have the ends immersed in boiling water. 

Kerosene and naphtha are death to both forms. Kerosene 
is the safer to use in large quantities because of the extreme 
danger of fire with the naphtha. Infested upholstery or 
bedding may be saturated with naphtha, if left out-of-doors 
or not exposed to any flame for days. Kerosene has a more 
lasting odor, for it evaporates more slowly and will also 
leave a stain, if dust settles in it while the oil is evaporat- 
ing. This makes its use more objectionable for fabrics. 

Corrosive sublimate is effectual, but it is a deadly poison 
when taken internally. 

A method which has been successful in many cases is the 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 337 

persistent use of ice-water. This no doubt would prevent 
the development of the eggs, and its faithful use tends to 
the cleanness which alone is effective prevention. 

Liquids are necessary, powders are practically useless, for 
the eggs are deeply concealed. Whatever liquid is used, 
it should be poured into holes or cracks and crevices, or 
injected from a spring-bottom oil-can or a syringe. 

The inflammation consequent upon the bite of Cimex may 
be relieved by bathing with ammonia or a solution of cook- 
ing soda. Insect powder between the sheets of an infested 
bed may make sleep possible until morning permits the vig- 
orous measures necessary for the extermination of the pest. 

Preventive Measures. — Every possible precaution that 
shall prevent the entrance of the insect into the house on 
clothing, furniture, baggage, etc. ; cleanness everywhere, 
especially clean bedsteads and bedding; metal bedsteads, 
wire mattresses; daily watchfulness as spring approaches. 

Remedies. — Boiling water, ice-water, kerosene, naphtha, 
corrosive sublimate, varnish, insect powder. 



Fleas 

Diptera — Pulicidae — Pulex serraficeps and Others. — The 
flea, which often becomes a household pest, is brought in 
chiefly by the pet cat or dog. The insects become dislodged 
from the hairs by the movements of the animal, and find 
new lodging places in cracks of floors or in meshes of 
carpets. Thence they jump upon the ankles of persons 
who disturb them by walking over their retreats. 

The metamorphosis of the flea is indirect. The adult is 
a small, shiny, black insect, with a plump body encased in 
hard, tough, segmented scales. The neck tapers toward the 
head, which is small and furnished with a hard helmet 
fringed with bristles. The legs are long, and the two seg- 



338 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

ments nearest the body enormously developed for leaping. 
The antennae are short and stout. 

The egg is a tiny, smooth and shining, white, oval body 
and normally is laid among the hairs of the cat or dog, 
not attached to them. The eggs hatch in about two days, 
and the larvae, long, slender, caterpillar-like bodies, are 
very active, and live in what seem to be absolutely dry 
places. The sweepings of a room have been used to rear 
the young larvae, in which case dust and their own excre- 
ment furnished sufficient food. 

An infested pet animal may drop eggs enough to give rise 
to a small army of adults, if they are left undisturbed in 
carpeted rooms. In rooms constantly used, the ordinary 
sweeping will usually either remove the eggs or prevent 
their hatching. 

The pet dog or cat should, therefore, be cared for first. 
There will then be little further trouble with Pulex serrati- 
ceps; although it is wise to let the pets have their special 
mat or cloth to lie upon, which may then be brushed often 
over the fire. 

Floor cracks should be filled with plaster of Paris, that dust 
cannot collect and furnish food for this or other insects. 

The ordinary insect remedies are of little use with this 
tiny athlete, robed in his black coat of mail, who is able to 
live upon dust, and who is said to be able to jump two hun- 
dred times its own height. If once they get a foothold, 
only strenuous methods are of any avail. Carpets must be 
taken up, steamed, or naphtha cleansed. Floors should be 
washed in hot soap-suds. Even if the carpet must be relaid, 
a thin coat of paint on the floor might prove an economical 
investment. 

With some persons the bite of the flea brings on swelling 
and intense itching. Both may be allayed with salt water. 
The annoyance is severe but short. 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 339 

Preventive Measures. — Care of the pet animals, washing 
and combing and general cleanness of their hair. 

Remedies. — Thorough cleaning of the infested room, 
absence of dust collections. 

Lessons IV and V 

Insects Injurious to Food Supplies 

Apparatus. — Borax, sulphur, molasses, chocolate, spices 
(clove, cinnamon, etc.) ; salt, plaster of Paris, water, propri- 
etary remedies, a small mortar for grinding, spoons and 
dishes for mixing materials, spring-bottom can, materials 
stained with cockroach excrement, materials scented with 
the cockroach odor, fabrics or papers gnawed by cock- 
roaches. 

Cockroaches 

Orthoptera — Blattidae — Perip/aneta (or/enta/is, americana, and 
australasice) and Ectobia germanica. — It is not strange that 
with the many conveniences and luxuries of modern houses 
there have come also some nuisances and pests. Some 
houses are as warm in winter as in summer, and too often 
bad air is an accompaniment of this heat. Hot air and 
water pipes running under and between walls and floors 
make many warm, dark, snug lurking places for insects. 
Perhaps the most common and offensive, in city houses at 
least, are the different varieties of cockroaches. 

The roach family is one of the most ancient as well as 
the most numerous in the insect world. The moisture and 
warmth of the Carboniferous period especially favored the 
multiplication of all species, and similar conditions in the 
tropics to-day produce similar results. They have always 
infested ships, and are thus carried into all parts of the 
globe. Fortunately, however, for the housewife, most of 
the species live out-of-doors, feeding upon living vegetation. 



340 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

The common species in this country are known by differ- 
ent names which are often used interchangeably, the "water 
bug " of one section being the cockroaches of a second, or 
the " black beetles'' of a third. 

There are two species easily distinguished by size and 
color. The black or very dark brown species is shiny and 
stout, the adult male with short, thin wings, the female 
nearly wingless; the other species varies from chocolate to a 
very light brown marked with lighter spots or bands on the 
back, near the head, and at the bases of the wings or their 
remnants. In all species the eyes are insignificant, the 
antennae very long, the mouth parts suited to biting, and 
the legs to swift running or enormous leaps. They are 
more apt to trust to their legs than to their wings for 
safety. The segments of the abdomen overlap and may 
be greatly extended like an accordion, so that the body 
is rendered thin and flat, and capable of entering very small 
cracks. 

The metamorphosis is direct, the larva and pupa resem- 
bling the adult, only smaller and minus wings. All stages 
are harmful. All species are very active, scudding rapidly 
away from the light or any interference. 

The eggs are laid enclosed in an oval or bean-shaped 
capsule, with its surface marked into rings so that the 
whole resembles a row of small elliptical crackers placed 
face to face. This capsule is extruded from the abdomen of 
the mother, and is often carried by her, partly showing, for 
some time. All such capsules found should be burned. 

The larvae when hatched are white, but soon grow yellow 
and brownish black. Young roaches are usually seen in 
company with the adults, and it may be that they are cared 
for or brooded a little while after birth. If true, this is, 
perhaps, the one redeeming feature in the life history of an 
otherwise wholly disgusting insect. The black cockroach 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 341 

certainly seems to enjoy the antics of his small progeny, 
for the little ones run over the parents, cuddle round them, 
or are carried by them with no sign of annoyance. 

Almost any dead organic matter will furnish food for 
some or all the species of domestic roaches. Food supplies, 
fabrics, leather, paper, — all may be gnawed by these insects, 
and the damage done to books and clothing is often beyond 
repair. 

The quantity of food supplies actually consumed, although 
by no means inconsiderable, might be overlooked, if these 
pests did not so often spoil whatever they come into contact 
with. They emit from their mouths and certain scent glands 
a dark colored fluid which stains their paths, and from which 
and their excrement as well, arises a fetid and disgusting 
odor. Shelves, boxes, drawers, and closets infested have 
to be washed with hot soap-suds or otherwise disinfected; 
clothing often carries the odor, and cooking utensils impart 
it, either as odor or taste, 4x> food and drink. 

To the initiated this odor often tells the tale of an in- 
fested house, when not a roach is seen, as in the case of a 
large, fashionable hotel where the warm-air ducts of the 
furnace betrayed the secret of a roach-infested cold-air box 
or cellar. 

Roaches always seek the dark when disturbed, as if they 
knew their deeds were evil. They will even drop from ceil- 
ing to floor and scud among the shadows. From this habit 
grows the Jlrst rule for prevention of the pest. 

Allow no cracks in warm, moist places, round sinks and 
water pipes, round tubs and baseboards, round chimneys 
and steam pipes. Fill them with putty or plaster of Paris, 
which may be painted over or colored to match the wood- 
work. A small crack is dark, holds dust and dirt which 
hold grease and moisture or food wastes, so that all such 
places act as invitations to roaches. 



342 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Second: — Keep all places which might harbor roaches 
dry and free from crumbs or food materials. A forgotten 
crust, a scrap of meat, grains of sugar, or drops of sweet 
liquids, may call an army that will overrun the house in 
search of food or breeding places. 

Third: — Let in the light! sunshine wherever possible. 
Abolish the dark, damp sink cupboards, the dark closet. 
Where such places exist constant watchfulness is required, 
and this may not bring complete relief. Light, dryness, 
absence of food, and general cleanness will reduce the cock- 
roach problem to its lowest terms. 

Eemedies are such or not according to conditions. The 
roaches are very wary and soon become accustomed to the 
methods used for their extermination, either avoiding them, 
if poison, or learning to ignore them, if only disagreeable. 
It is well, therefore, to surprise them occasionally by new 
methods. 

Borax or insect powder should be scattered round sinks, 
tubs, or other favorite haunts. Insect powder may be 
burned on a hot stove or on a red-hot shovel. The smoke 
and odor produced in this way are often a more effective 
remedy than the dry powder. The room should be tightly 
closed for five or six hours in order to get the full benefit 
from the vapor. If this be done at night, more roaches are 
likely to be affected. Equal parts of borax and chocolate 
may be ground together. The mixture should be so well 
made that each bit of chocolate should have its bit of borax. 
The chocolate they like ; the borax they dislike, although 
they soon learn to disregard its effects. 

Plaster of Paris and common salt, in the proportion of 
one pound of the plaster to five ounces of salt, may be 
sprinkled round their haunts with good effect. 

Powders interfere with their respiration by clogging 
the spiracles. The insects are rendered sluggish, and may 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 343 

then be collected and burned. This is an effective method 
with the black beetle, who is so large, so plump, and so 
wary that he is killed with difficulty. This species is 
socially inclined and travels in companies. When con- 
ditions grow unfavorable or the battle is too heavy 
against them in one house, they often move en masse to 
the next. When never a cockroach has been visible for 
months, if a light be suddenly brought into the closed 
kitchen after some hours of darkness, there may be heard 
a ghostly scratching and scraping as a small army of 
black roaches scuttles away to seek hiding places. For 
such invasions the insect powder is best. Spread it gener- 
ously over the floor at dusk and leave it there for hours 
or until dawn. Before the room is light sweep up and burn 
the powder and the stupefied roaches. 

Sulphur and molasses mixed to a paste and spread on 
paper or chips scattered round their haunts usually drives 
them away quickly. Many of the insect exterminating 
pastes owe their value to phosphorus. 

Advantage may be taken of their liking for sweet liquids 
by leaving such in shallow dishes, or with some means of 
approach provided so that they may be entrapped. Traps 
are effective in food closets when insect powder would be 
objectionable. 

Preventive Measures. — Light, air, absence of food, clean- 
ness, absence of cracks. 

Remedies. — Insect powder, borax, chocolate and borax, 
spices and borax, sulphur and molasses, plaster of Paris 
and salt. 

Ants and Miscellaneous Pests 

Apparatus. — Molasses, syrup, lard, kerosene, boiling water, 
insect powder, small sponges, chips, strips of fur, small 



344 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

dishes, spring-bottom can, atomizer or bulb syringe, dried 
beans, peas, whole spice or fruits showing the work of 
insects, wooden boxes or receptacles gnawed into by insects. 

Lesson V 
Ants 

Hymenoptera — Formicidae — Monomorium pharaonis, Motiomo- 
rium minutum, Tetramorium ccesp/tum. — The ants, to many en- 
tomologists as well as to amateur observers, are the most 
interesting of all insects. Yet to the housewife they can 
be considered only as pests, except as she studies them 
individually. 

In different parts of the country different species are 
more or less troublesome ; but the tiny red ant is the one 
which seems to be thoroughly domestic in its tastes and 
habits. Besides this species a small and a large black ant 
are often troublesome in pantries and storerooms. The red 
ant is so tiny and agile that its destruction is difficult. 
None of the ants are destructive in so many ways or to 
so great a degree as other household pests, but they annoy 
by getting into food supplies and cooked food, especially 
the fats, sugars, and sweet liquids. The most distinctive 
characteristic of the ants is the constriction at the " waist," 
that is, between the second and last segments of the body. 
This enables the abdomen to be raised, lowered, or moved 
very quickly and forcibly. The wasp-like waist is seen oc- 
casionally on so-called higher animals to whom it does not 
properly belong. The metamorphosis is indirect, and most 
children are familiar with ants' larvae and pupae, which they 
wrongly call "ants' eggs." The real eggs are very small, 
and would not attract the attention of a casual observer 
even when visible to the unaided eye. 

Ants are creatures wonderfully specialized according to 
work and form. Some have fully developed wings, some 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 345 

have only the rudiments, while others bear no trace of such 
appendages. Most of the ants found in the house are the 
" workers/' and do not have wings. 

The antennae are extremely delicate, slightly swollen at 
their tip, and seldom quiet. The mouth parts are formed 
for piercing the food substance and for drawing from it 
the liquid food. 

The eggs are laid in enormous numbers and in several 
batches. The nests or formicaries hold large colonies 
made up of all forms so that they furnish most interesting 
and instructive objects for study. The adult form, how- 
ever, is the harmful one. 

To prevent attacks from ants, all fats and sweets should 
be tightly covered, — wooden buckets are not proof against 
them. Great care is necessary not to leave any grains of 
sugar or crumbs of food on shelves or floors. Cleanness 
and protection of all available food supplies are the first 
requisites for freedom from the ravages of any of these 
species. 

Both of the black species usually establish their colonies 
out-of-doors, — the smaller one under stones in the yards or 
in holes in the fields, the larger one under the pavements. 
Unless the colonies are destroyed, the relief given by all 
other measures will be only temporary, for the females 
seldom leave the nests, and they start many colonies dur- 
ing one season. 

The little red ant (Monomorium pharaonis) has its nest 
in the walls beneath the floors or in cracks behind the wood- 
work of the house. Thence the workers sally forth for 
supplies. When these are found, the news is quickly car- 
ried to the colony and swarms issue forth to feed and for- 
age. By watching their movements the nests may often" 
be located and destroyed by pouring in kerosene, or car- 
bolic acid, or a boiling hot, strong solution of alum. Some- 



346 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

times it is necessary to take up boards in the flooring. In 
some way the colonies should be located, if any one of these 
forms becomes a pest. They are persistent in retaining 
their homes, and the housewife must be as persistent as 
they are, if she hopes to keep them from the house or its 
vicinity. 

Pastry is a delicious titbit for the little red ant, and 
many a woman has first found out their presence by 
seeing them appear upon the pie she was serving for 
dessert. 

Shelves may be washed with a five per cent carbolic acid 
solution, with a decoction of quassia chips, or hot alum 
water. Powdered lime or borax sprinkled freely on shelves 
and floors may be effective. Certain strong odors are objec- 
tionable to the red ant especially. Wormwood, cucumber, 
or pennyroyal are used for this purpose. Cucumber par- 
ings, the fresh herbs, or the oil of pennyroyal may be used. 
The last may be spread about on bits of cotton. 

Lard is an attractive bait. Chips holding lard may be 
placed in the infested places ; the little creatures will swarm 
over these, and when they are well covered they should be 
thrown into the fire. A strip of fur placed along the shelf 
or round plates of food is a protection, for the ants get 
entangled among the hairs. Plunge the infested fur into 
boiling water and thoroughly dry afterwards. 

The black ants have so strong a liking for sweets that 
these furnish the best bait for them. Saturate small bits 
of sponge with syrup, molasses, or a solution of borax and 
sugar. Leave them about the places most frequented by 
the ants. When these are well stocked, plunge into boiling 
water as before. 

Preventive Measures. — Covering, or tight closing, of food 
supplies, especially fats and sugars ; cleanness and dryness ; 
absence of all attractive substances. 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 347 

Remedies. — Boiling water, carbolic acid, alum, traps, fur, 
borax, wormwood, quassia, pennyroyal, cucumber. 

Miscellaneous Pests. — The number of insects which may 
be found in pantries and storerooms is almost infinite. 
Some of these affect only moist food supplies like meats, 
pickles, cheese, etc.; others are found in meals, prepared 
cereals, spices, legumes, and dried fruits. Many times these 
food materials become infested in the mills or storehouses ; 
others in the groceries or markets ; while others may become 
so through lack of proper care in the individual house. 

All supplies should be examined carefully when bought. 
When meals, flours, crackers, dry fruits, or prepared cereals 
show silken threads or traces of webs or insects either at 
first sight or after sifting, — all such suspicious supplies 
should be returned to the store. If the nuisance continues, 
another source of supply should be sought. 

Persons in charge of mills and storehouses should under- 
stand the dangers to their products and the preventive and 
remedial measures. If there is carelessness here, the inter- 
mediate dealer should return all infested products ; and the 
honest, enterprising grocer or marketman will see to it 
that his goods are not contaminated while in his posses- 
sion. 

Supplies, non-infested when bought, become so very soon 
if pantries and store-closets are not kept cool and dry. 
Moisture and warmth are the favorable conditions for most 
insect development. Wooden receptacles may harbor eggs 
or larvae for long periods within their seams or crevices ; 
larvae may enter such, or eat through pasteboard, or through 
paper bags. Glass, tin, stone, or earthen receptacles are 
safer for the storage of any food materials. Such food- 
holders in cool, dry rooms will reduce to the minimum all 
danger from insect pests. 

Where wooden buckets or barrels must be used, a coat of 



548 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

paint outside serves as a protection ; but nothing can take 
the place of dr} 7 ness and constant cleanness. 

Here, as well as in other parts of the house, and with 
all insects, especial watchfulness should be exercised in the 
early spring months that no hibernating adults or develop- 
ing pupae spread infestation while the housewife is off 
guard. 

LESSOXS VI AND VII 

Insects Injurious to Clothing or Fabrics — Clothes Moths 

and Silverfish 

Apparatus. — Insect powder, naphtha, "moth, balls" or 
other "exterminators," camphor, black pepper, cedar chips, 
tarred paper, pasteboard boxes to illustrate sealing, paper, 
mucilage or paste, water, paper bags, cotton bags (pillow 
slips), newspapers, twine, needle and thread, fur, steel 
comb, woollen stuffs to be cleaned and packed, rattan or 
flexible wand, hot flatiron, clothes for steaming. 

Clothes Moths 

Lepidoptera — Heterocera — Tinea, Tineola, and Others. — 

There are different species of these insects which infest 
different sections of the country. In the colder portions and 
in country houses their ravages are confined to the summer 
season ; but in the warmer parts and in cities, where houses 
are kept at summer temperature throughout the year, their 
ravages may continue indefinitely. 

The adult insect is small, yellowish, or buff-colored, with 
two pairs of delicate wings, the forward pair darker than 
the other, either with or without spots or distinctive mark- 
ings. The most common species has dark spots along the 
bases of hairs which fringe the edges of the wings, and de- 
tached spots near the forward edge. The antennae are long, 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 349 

slender, and tapering. The head looks like a small cushion 
with hairs for pins. 

With spread wings the moth measures little more than 
half an inch. They are averse to light, and fly around the 
darker parts of the room. This habit with the smaller size 
serves to distinguish between them and those varieties 
which fly round lights and often burn themselves to death in 
the flames. The metamorphosis of these moths is indirect. 

The adult or imago is harmful only because it lays the 
eggs, for its mouth parts are fitted for lapping, and it must, 
therefore, take liquid food. The pupa takes no food, so 
that the harm is done by the larva, and this begins to eat 
as soon as it leaves the egg. When seen flying round the 
house, the moth or " miller " is either seeking a suitable 
place to deposit her eggs or has just deposited them, and 
is, perhaps, taking its last flight, for they die very soon 
after they have laid their eggs. 

The mother moth cannot be accused of neglect, for she 
invariably selects those materials and those parts of the 
materials which will furnish the richest supply of warmth 
and necessary food for the tiny babies. She also scatters 
them here and there, not depositing them in one place ; 
thus ensuring each larva sufficient room to get its food and 
clothing. 

Some varieties prefer to bring up their babies upon wool, 
others choose hair or fur or feathers ; but if they cannot 
get their first choice, they will accommodate themselves to 
circumstances, and find their food among any or all of the 
above substances. Possibly they may sometimes vary their 
diet with silk or paper, but this is not common, and cotton 
they have not yet deigned to add to their already generous 
bill of fare. 

The mother moth is instinctively wise. She not only 
chooses the best materials for food, but also knows that 



350 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

folds, gathers, and creases collect and hold dust, absorb 
vapors from cooking, from fires and lights, and that such 
places are least likely to be thoroughly and often cleaned. 
Such places are the chosen nurseries — the gathers in 
woollen dress-skirts ; the collars and folds and under-arm 
spaces of coats and waists; the seams and creases in 
trousers, where mingled dust, perspiration, and grease stock 
the larder. 

The eggs of all species are nearly or quite invisible to the 
naked eye, and are usually laid directly upon the material 
which will serve as food, but sometimes in crevices and 
cracks of trunks, boxes, floors, or in empty nail-holes where 
the tiny larvae may readily gain access to the food materials. 

The larva, called worm rather than caterpillar, is whitish 
in color with a dark head. As soon as hatched, the common 
species builds for itself a cylindrical jacket or case out of 
the materials upon which it finds itself. This is its first 
work. The outside of the jacket is therefore the same in 
color as the food material, but the inside is lined with soft, 
whitish silk. The lava thus eats paths along the cloth, or 
in some cases burrows directly through the goods, burying 
itself in the tunnels of fuzzy pile. They are sometimes 
found outside of their cases, although, usually, only the 
brownish head and next segment of the body are visible. 

As the body grows it requires a larger jacket or case, and 
the larva cuts a slit and inserts a gusset or gore to increase 
the diameter, besides increasing the length. If different 
colored cloths furnish the food during the larval stage, the 
jacket may become a Joseph's coat of many colors. When 
rearing the larvae for examination, this is a pleasing experi- 
ment to try. 

In dealing with moths as with all harmful or disagreeable 
pests, " Prevention is better than cure." 

It is easier to prevent the entrance of the parent than to 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 351 

kill the eggs, or the larvae, or to remedy the ravages. The 
preventive measures include : early screening of windows 
and doors, for the moths usually deposit their eggs in April 
or May (some species raise two broods, the latter one in 
August or September) ; plenty of sunlight and fresh air 
throughout the house ; light closets, and these often aired 
and kept free from dust and fluff ; absence of heavy carpets 
which cover the entire floor and are fastened close to the 
wall, as these gather dust, are hard to keep clean, and 
will not be removed and aired as often as is desirable; 
as few articles or stuffs as possible that are food for these 
forms. The too many pieces with unused or unusable gar- 
ments, which often fill trunks and drawers would better be 
destroyed, given away, or used, than stored, thus inviting 
moths and final waste. 

Articles which must be stored should first be thoroughly 
cleaned. Any article which can be washed should be. All 
grease spots must be removed, and dust beaten or shaken 
out. Woollen stuffs and furs should be hung out-of-doors 
in the sun and wind ; beaten with a small rattan or other 
flexible stick, — furs may be combed with a steel comb, — 
and thoroughly brushed. All this is necessary to insure 
the absence of eggs. If all eggs are not removed before 
storage in warm, dry, dark places, there is no safety. The 
eggs will hatch, and the larvae have nothing to interfere 
with their feast. 

Strong odors generally repel moths. Perhaps the odors 
themselves are disagreeable, or perhaps they cover up the 
natural odor of the stuff, which, to the insect, is an invita- 
tion to come in and establish its family. This fact explains 
why camphor, cedar, pepper, tar, "moth balls," and other 
preparations are recommended for the protection of woollen 
goods and furs. Such substances may prevent the mother 
from entering, but do not kill the eggs, which may have been 



352 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

laid on or in the articles or packages. All such substances 
lose their strong odor after a while and become useless. 

Moth eggs will not hatch if kept very cold. A constant 
temperature of 40° F. will prevent all ravages from moths. 
Cold storage warehouses are often kept as low as 25° F., so 
that articles stored there may be kept safely any length of 
time. The assurance of safety is worth the additional 
expense, where many or valuable articles are to be pre- 
served. 

If a light, airy room or closet can be spared, dresses, 
coats, furs, blankets, etc., may be hung or left loosely on 
shelves, if examined, shaken, and brushed every month or 
oftener, according to conditions. They are much safer 
than when put away in dark, close packages, subject to 
wrinkles. Turpentine, camphor, tobacco, or other strong- 
smelling substances may be sprinkled or spread on floors 
or left in an open bottle in the room near the doors or other 
places where moths might enter. 

If clothing must be left undisturbed, the thorough clean- 
ing of every article may be followed by packing it smoothly 
in boxes, bags, bundles, etc., with any preferred substance 
to furnish the disagreeable odor. The latter is not neces- 
sary if the enclosing receptacles are absolutely sealed 
against the moth. Boxes may have strips of paper pasted 
over the crack between cover and box. Paper bags should 
have the tops turned over and pasted down; cloth bags 
must have the open mouth turned under and sewed 
securely. They should also be made of cotton. Packages 
may be wrapped in cotton or newspapers with no crack or 
broken place where this extremely thin little insect may 
enter. Trunks, closets, drawers, or boxes may be sprayed 
with naphtha or turpentine. 

Naphtha, benzine, turpentine, kill both eggs and moths, 
therefore these are both preventives and remedies. The 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 353 

extreme inflammability of their vapors is the chief argument 
against their use. They must not be used where there is 
any fire or flame, or where there will be such for some time. 
Woollen garments may be cleaned with naphtha, carpets and 
furniture may be sprayed or saturated with it. If the work 
be done out-of-doors and the stuffs left until no odor is per- 
ceptible, there seems to be no better remedy. Turpentine 
does not evaporate as quickly as naphtha, and both odors 
may be detected from furniture in a warm room for a long 
time after the process of cleaning. 

When the edges of carpets are infested, the tacks may be 
taken out, the carpet turned over for some inches, folds of 
wet cloth laid under and over the carpet strip, and hot flat- 
irons applied. The steam will penetrate and kill larvae and 
eggs. 

Kerosene, naphtha, or turpentine may be sprayed or poured 
along the edges or into cracks at such times as may be safe 
from fire. Black pepper and insect powder kept along the 
edges may prevent the deposition of eggs. 

•The safest and surest methods of dealing with the moth 
pest are the methods of prevention. It is very difficult to 
know that all eggs are absent, when once they have been 
present. 

When a house is to be closed for the summer, pans of 
water should be left in the centre of the floors. Moths and 
other insects will go here for water and may be caught. 
Evaporation, for much longer periods, may be prevented by 
spraying a thin film of some inodorous oil over the surface. 

The methods of fumigation used in houses where con- 
tagious diseases have occurred also exterminate moths. 

Preventive Measures. — Light, sunshine if possible, air, 
absence of breeding places, cleanness in house and of cloth- 
ing, cold storage, frequent examination, movement and use, 
strong odors. 
2a 



354 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Remedies. — Brushing, beating, and combing, steam, kero- 
sene, naphtha, turpentine, fumigation. 

Silverfish 

Thysanura — - Lepismatidae — Lepisma. — In old houses, in 
attics, and sometimes in the closets of any house is seen a 
pretty, slender, agile insect, popularly called silverfish, 
because of its color, its scales, and undulatory movements. 
Other names are " sugar-fish," " fish-moth," " silverwitch," 
and "thistletail." 

The scales are smooth and slippery, the body is wingless 
and worm-like in appearance, about one-third of an inch 
long. The head bears two long slender antennae, while the 
anal end carries three long, barbed bristles, one extended in 
line with the body, the others, one on each side, sometimes 
at right angles to the first. 

The silverfish seems to have a voracious appetite for lace 
curtains, holland shades, and all starched goods. It attacks 
books, silks, and wall-paper, probably to get at the sizing or 
paste which they supply, and it occasionally tastes the food 
supplies. The most damage is done when a furnished 
house is closed for the summer or for a longer time. 
Fabrics in use and, therefore, often disturbed are least 
subject to injury. 

No special preventive measures apply to this insect. 

All specimens seen should be killed, and fabrics packed 
away should be often examined and shaken. Insect powder 
may be scattered freely under and about trunks, packing- 
boxes, and shelves, while bookcases should also have a 
generous supply. 

The appetite for starch which the silverfish shows 
should not be catered to by putting stored fabrics away 
in a starched condition. 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 355 

Preventive Measures. — Frequent examination of stored 
fabrics, dryness in trunks and any receptacles for stored 
fabrics. 

Remedies. — Insect powder. 

Cavpet-beetles and Crickets 

Apparatus. — Insect powder, naphtha, turpentine, kerosene, 
tarred roofing paper, w r ater, specimens of fabrics eaten by 
carpet-beetles, specimens of cloth eaten by crickets, atomizer 
or syringe, spring-bottom can, trap bated with sweet liquid 
for crickets, hot flatiron, cloths for steaming, pieces of car- 
pet to illustrate steaming. 

Lesson VII 
Carpet-beetles 

Coleoptera — Dermestidae — Anthrenus Scrophulariw. — During 
the last twenty-five years great havoc has been caused 
in some parts of the United States by an insect pest, 
familiarly called " buffalo bug," or "buffalo moth." It is 
neither a bug nor a moth, but a beetle, and, like the moths, 
it is the larvae which eat carpets and other fabrics. It is 
said to have been called " buffalo beetle n when it was first 
found injuring carpets in the city of Buffalo, in 1872. 

It is found most frequently in the late spring, in the 
summer, and fall months, for cold or lack of food retards 
its development. It is, however, very persistent of life, and 
may exist for months in unoccupied houses, without food, 
except that furnished by the dusty lint and fluff which 
are never absent. Like the moth, it prefers wool, but will 
riddle silk, and often attacks books, either for the paste and 
glue used in their binding, or for the binding itself. 

The common species is a small beetle, nearly elliptical, 
or broadly oval in shape, covered on the back with minute 



356 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

scales which give it a black and white appearance. There 
are more or less distinct blotches of red caused by a stripe 
down the middle of the back, which widens in three places 
along its course. It plays "possum" when disturbed. 

The head is scarcely distinguishable from the body except 
by the short knobbed antennae. Each leg ends in a tiny 
hook. 

The metamorphosis is indirect. 

The larva is longer than the adult, with the plainly seg- 
mented body tapering towards the anal end. Each segment 
has a tuft of stiff brown hairs on each side, while on the 
back a larger tuft of longer hairs finishes the body at each 
end. The larva is very active, eats voraciously, and is 
usually found covered with the fuzz of the material upon 
which it is feeding. This fuzzy, hairy appearance might 
well gain for it its name of "buffalo." The larvae do not 
cling to the cloth as do the larvae of moths, and the eggs 
are always laid in dark places. 

Under favorable conditions the larva changes into the 
pupa quite rapidly. The adults are day -fliers, and as soon 
as the pupal skin is cast they try to leave the house to 
reach certain plants whose pollen is their favorite food. 
Scrophulaviacece and some Compositce are often chosen, but 
the white spiraeas are their especial delight. All specimens 
found upon such plants should be killed, for they will 
probably go into houses to lay their eggs. 

Where the beetles work in carpets, they sometimes eat 
irregular holes here and there from the under side, and 
sometimes follow the cracks, cutting long slits. In folded 
garments they eat small round holes through all the folds. 
A folded silk umbrella was found with tiny holes each 
side of every rib, and the guilty larva dropped when the 
umbrella was raised. 

As with moths, so with this pest, all-over carpets are 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 357 

especially favorable lodging, feeding, and breeding places, 
because of the dirt there preserved, and because they are 
not shaken, beaten, and aired sufficiently often. Stuffs 
which are examined and shaken may be kept from their 
ravages, because the larvae are not attached to the fibres. 

Preventive measures are identical with those for moths. 

In storerooms and attics where many woollen goods are 
kept it is sometimes feasible to spread for the beetles a 
special table ! One ingenious housekeeper used to lay a 
strip of red flannel on her attic floor and daily shake it over 
the fire or plunge it into a pan of boiling water. In this 
way she protected valuable property. They seemed to like 
red better than any other color. 

It is, perhaps, the worst enemy of woollen stuffs, and 
where once established requires the most vigorous and 
persistent efforts before it can be eradicated. If its occur- 
rence leads the American housewife to discard her all-over 
carpets, it may be looked upon as a blessing in disguise. In 
Europe, its original home, it is not considered a general 
household pest, probably because bare floors and rugs are 
the rule, rather than the exception. 

If carpets must be retained where this pest has shown 
itself, they should be thoroughly beaten, and naphtha 
cleansed; the floors washed with strong, hot soap-suds, or 
sprayed with kerosene, benzine, or turpentine; all cracks 
filled with plaster of Paris, the edges, better the entire 
floor, covered with tarred roofing paper before the carpet 
is relaid. 

Another beetle has been found to eat carpets, woollen 
stuffs, feathers, and books. In some places it has given 
more trouble than the previous form, but in general fewer 
complaints are made about it. It may occur in the same 
places and under the same conditions as the other. The 
adult (Attagenus pieeu$) is smooth and black, smaller and 



358 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

more oblong in shape ; the larva is long, slim, light brown, 
with its narrower body tapering toward the anal end which 
bears a wisp of long, slender hairs. It, too, has hairs over 
the sides and back, but they are more flexible and closely 
appressed to the body. Its habits and work resemble those 
of the previous species, and the same measures of preven- 
tion and extermination apply. This, however, usually 
works equally well during all seasons, while the "buffalo 
bug " works its greatest damage during the summer months. 

At the risk of killing a few innocent species, it will be 
well to destroy every small, black, or black and white 
beetle found in the house. The " lady-bird " saves herself 
from this general slaughter by the red color of her coat, and 
her gay, prominent spots. She feeds upon plant aphides, 
and should be spared. 

Preventive Measures. — All given for moths, especially 
emphasized. 

Remedies. — Same as for moths, more persistently applied. 

Crickets 

Orthoptera — Gryllidae — Gryllus. — In country houses the 
cricket on the hearth may become the cricket in the laundry 
basket, the bureau drawers, or closets, and it may meet its 
death in the uncovered dish of liquid from which it took its 
last draught. It prefers liquid food, but that failing, it 
finds other pantry supplies decidedly to its taste. If these 
be not at hand, it does not hesitate to attack clothing, 
whether from hunger, or simply to keep its jaws moving, it 
is hard to tell. Perhaps the most harm comes to the basket 
of damp clothes awaiting the laundress, for there the 
cricket finds a convenient source of moisture. The common 
grasshopper, too, will, if detained in the house, dine on the 
housewife's possessions. 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 359 

The cricket cannot become a serious household pest so 
long as it does not breed there, but always in the fields. 
It is well to be on the watch, however, for some enterprising 
individual cricket may decide to change its habits, and be- 
come an in-door s insect. The metamorphosis is direct. 

The adults are large, nearly or quite black insects, with 
long, threadlike antennae extending from the large, smooth 
head. The hind legs have strongly developed muscles, 
which enable the insect to take quick, long leaps. This is 
more often its method of escape than by the use of its wings, 
although these are long, and well developed. The feet are 
furnished with prongs, which enable the insect to hold quite 
tightly to any fabric. Its characteristic love song is made 
by movements of one wing over the other. Its mouth parts 
are suitable for biting, and they use them as a means of 
defence when captured by hand. 

Cricket is so plump, so merry, and altogether so interest- 
ing that one hesitates to kill it. Yet, if it becomes a pest, 
it should be exterminated. Its desire for moisture and 
sweet liquids may become its ruin, and such substances 
may serve as traps for Mr. Gryllus. 

Ancient superstitions still cling about this black singer, 
and many persons still believe that if a cricket be killed, its 
relatives will avenge the murder by destroying the clothes 
of the murderer. It is easier to kill crickets than supersti- 
tions. 

Preventive measures may be included in one word — 
watchfulness; remedies can scarcely stop short of actual 
death. 

Suggestions for Related Language and Reading Lessons. — 

Encourage observation of insects in field and garden — 
especially ants, beetles, and bees. Eequire written descrip- 
tions of the results of such observations. 



360 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Written descriptions of typical insects. Compare with 
authoritative descriptions in books. 

Keep list of insects observed and studied. 

Note adaptations of structure to habits of life — flattened 
bodies in insects choosing cracks as hiding places ; color and 
markings like substances preferred for food, etc. 

Written description of the above in the form of essays, to 
cultivate accuracy of statement, and in form of stories or 
dialogues between insects and carpenters, etc., for the exer- 
cise of the imagination. 

Calculate damage to property, actual or estimated, due to 
lack of care. Compare this with actual or estimated expense 
of preventive or remedial measure. Draw up balance sheet. 

Select from Bibliography books or selections most appro- 
priate for grade and work. Eead, and have written reviews 
of matter read — condensed or expanded account of same. 

Search through general literature, prose and poetry, for 
references to insects, — their habits, work, treatment; for 
figures of speech drawn from the general subject, as: Prov. 
xxxi. 27, first clause ; Prov. vi. 6. 

A close mouth catches no flies. — Cervantes. 

Maidens, like moths, are ever caught by glare. — Byron. 

And half-starved spiders prey'd on half-starved flies. 

— Churchill. 

Here Skugg lies snug 

As a bug in a rug. — B. Franklin. 

Like summer friends, 

Flies of estate and sunneshine. 

— Geo. Herbert. 

A worm is in the bud of youth, 
And at the root of age. — Cowper. 

A fly bit the bare pate of a bald man, who, in endeavoring to crush 
it, gave himself a hard slap. Then said the fly, jeeringly, "You 



HOUSEHOLD PESTS 361 

wanted to revenge the sting of a tiny insect with death ; what will 
you do to yourself who have added insult to injury ? " — Ph^edrus. 

What is not good for the swarm is not good for the bee. Every- 
thing is in a state of metamorphosis. — Marcus Aurelius. 

Solon used to say that . . . laws were like cobwebs. 

And others more or less familiar. 

Let pupils originate figures of speech founded upon 
insects' structure, habits, etc. Class criticise, improve, if 
possible. Have notebooks in which above figures of speech, 
whether quoted or original, may be kept. 



CHAPTER XIV 

HOUSE CLEANING 

By L. L. W. WILSON, Ph.D., 

Of the Philadelphia Normal School 

Facts. — The best advice that can be given on the subject 
of house cleaning is "Don't" or, if you must, then clean 
twice, once in the spring and again in the fall. 

The annual spring cleaning not only upsets both the 
cleaners and the cleaned, but, occurring just at the time 
when insects' are laying their eggs, is apt to spread the 
disease, rather than to cure it. By waiting until mid- 
summer, more will be accomplished, even if no better 
methods are employed. 

The chief advantage of house cleaning lies in the fact 
that at this time the year's accumulations are looked over, 
and many of them rejected. To leave woodwork and 
floors and closets for a yearly cleaning, as many people do, 
is inexcusable. Once a week in dusty regions, or, perhaps, 
once a month in the clean country or seashore, is little 
enough. 

In general the same methods should be pursued in cleaning 
at house cleaning time as in the weekly cleaning. For this 
see the chapter on the Dining Eoom, and the section on 
cleaning in the chapter on the Kitchen. In addition to this, 
remember that all closets must be cleaned in connection 
with rooms to which they belong, but before that room is 
touched. 

362 



HOUSE CLEANING 363 

If there are carpets, each must be taken up, and either 
sent to a carpet cleaning establishment, or else, one at a 
time, taken into the yard, beaten, sprayed with benzine, and 
allowed to air for several hours. 

In the meantime, the room must be thoroughly swept and 
dusted. If there are cracks in the floor, or at the junction 
of the baseboard and floor, clean them out, pour benzine 
into them, and later fill them with liquid plaster of Paris. 

Shake thoroughly in the yard all hangings. Put these 
away, rough drying any soiled wash curtains. Cover the 
pictures with netting, and the cleaned furniture with linen. 

Method. — Make this season of the year the occasion to 
review the whole subject of cleaning. Since they have 
already had demonstrations of the principles involved, this 
will be most satisfactorily done in a series of oral language 
lessons. For practical work let them consider the problem 
of effectively cleaning the schoolroom. Make a list of what 
is to be done, and the order of doing. Let the children 
themselves choose a leader, who shall have absolute power 
to carry the cleaning through. 



JUNE 



MENDING AND SEWING 

By JULIA K. McDOUGALL 

Supervisor of Classes in Domestic Art, Pratt Institute 



CHAPTER XV 

MENDING 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Needlework, Knitting, and Cutting Out, Elizabeth Rosevear ; House- 
hold Sewing with Home Dressmaking, Bertha Banner ; Needlework 
for Student Teachers, Amy K. Smith ; Progressive Lessons in the 
Art and Practice of Needlework, C. F. Johnson; Illustrated Sewing 
Primer, L. J. Kirkwood; Handbook for Sewing-School Teachers, 
Whittaker ; About Needles, L. T. Robinson. 

Chautauquan, vol. 20, p. 213 ; Good Words, vol. 8, p. 417 ; London 
Society, vol. 15, p. 75 ; Atlantic, vol. 19, p. 527 ; Belgravia, vol. 23, 
p. 470; Galaxy, vol. 4, p. 471; Chambers's Journal, vol. 34, p. 354; 
All the Year Round, vol. 21, p. 394; Leisure Hour, vol. 10, p. 428. 

The lessons as here outlined are supposed to give the 
child a slight insight into the art of mending, so that she 
may be able to practically apply it later at home. 

The study of the history of the materials used will 
be found to enhance the interest of the child in her 
work, at the same time adding wonderfully to her fund of 
knowledge. 

The one suggestion to be made to the teacher is to make 
the work practical as well as educational. This can be 
done by applying it always to the home needs, and illus- 
trating the point at the same time. 

In presenting a lesson to a class, the demonstration 
frame in many cases is most valuable, and should be used, 
if possible. 

367 



368 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

History of Sewing 

Sewing has existed in every state of society. At first 
thorns were used as needles, or fibres of plants, to bind the 
foliage, used as covering, together. Later, as garments were 
made of skin before woven cloth was manufactured, some 
nations used small bones of fish or animals, sharpened at 
the end, as needles, and twisted sinews for thread. 

The Egyptians were the first to manufacture cotton cloth, 
and the garments found in the tombs show that at an early 
period they were expert with their needle in a primitive 
way, both in sewing and embroidery. 

Five thousand years ago the Egyptians used needles made 
of wood. Pins were first made of ivory, afterward of box- 
wood, bone, and some few of silver. In 1543 the manufac- 
ture of brass pins was begun, and at the present time the 
English pins rank the highest in the market. 

Needles were first made in England by a native of India, 
in 1545, but the art was lost at his death. It was after- 
wards recovered by Christopher Greening, in 1560. 

The women of Greenland sew very well, using sinews of 
seal, whales, and reindeer for thread, which the girls are 
taught to prepare at an early age. 

The women of Corea sew neatly, but very deliberately. 
The French, as a nation, excel in their fine hand needle- 
work. The children are taught to sew when very young, 
and in the schools sewing is made part of their education. 

In Switzerland needlework, mending, etc., has been taught 
the girls in the schools for many years. The Japanese 
and the Persians are noted rather as embroiderers than 
sewers, the work being done more often by the men than 
the women. 

Naturally the sewing done at first was primitive, and the 
garments made were very simple ; but as time advanced, 



MENDING 369 

almost every nation improved in sewing and garment cut- 
ting, and also in embroidery, so that by the end of the 
seventeenth century the use of the needle in convents and 
schools was carried to great perfection. 

Hand sewing continued to be the only means of sewing 
until 1830, when Bartholemy Thimonier of France invented 
the first sewing-machine. This, of course, was a very simple 
affair, and was followed by a double thread, or lockstitch, 
machine, invented by Walter Hunt of New York in 1832. 
In 1844 Elias Howe of Massachusetts improved upon those 
already invented, and the Singer sewing-machine was first 
used in 1851. These, as is well known, have been improved 
upon by many others, until it would seem perfection had 
almost been reached. 

Sewing has been introduced as part of a child's education 
in most of the public schools of America in the past ten or 
twelve years, and will soon, it is hoped, become universal. 



Study of Material 

Wool. — "Wool, in its natural state, is a dirty white, yellow, 
or brown in color, and is obtained from the sheep. The 
sheep are shorn once a year, generally in April or May, the 
best wool coming from the shoulders, lower part of the neck, 
and the back. 

When seen through a microscope, a fibre of wool is com- 
posed of rings, which stand out like scales on a fish, and it 
is this property which makes a piece of woollen cloth feel 
rough to the touch when passing over it in one direction, but 
not in another. Woollens and worsteds are very much alike, 
but it may be easy to remember that long-fibred wool, when 
spun and woven, produces worsteds, while short-fibred wool, 
spun and more closely woven, makes the wools, though it is 
2b 



370 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

now hard to distinguish the difference, owing to the great 
improvement of the machinery used in the manufacture. 

The first process in the preparation of wool for weaving 
is the washing. This is done by a machine which opens out 
the matted wool by means of rakes, at the same time wash- 
ing it through several waters on a series of tables. 

The next step is the bleaching of the wool, which is not 
difficult, and far less laborious than the bleaching of cotton 
or linen. If the wool is to be dyed a dark color it is not 
bleached. 

The use of wool for spinning and weaving is of so great 
an antiquity that it is impossible to say when it originated, 
but it is certain that wool was in use long before vegetable 
fibre was employed. 

Our greatest supplies of wool come from California and 
Australia. London and Boston are the greatest wool mar- 
kets in the world. 

Cotton. — Most of the cotton used in the world is raised in 
the United States, and the two principal varieties are, short 
staple cotton, or cotton having short fibres, and long staple 
cotton, having long fibres. The Sea Island cotton, which 
has the longest fibres, and is the best, is almost extinct. 

Cotton grows in warm climates, and the seed is sown in 
March or April, and early in June the plant begins to bloom. 
The blossom resembles the hollyhock, and changes its color 
in twenty-four hours from pale straw color to a clear pink. 
After the flowers fall the pods, or bolls, grow rapidly, and 
burst open when ripe, showing the fleecy cotton ready for 
picking. 

After the cotton is gathered it is exposed to the sun until 
quite dry, and the seeds are separated from the fibres of the 
cotton. The fibres are next separated from each other, and 
freed from dust as nearly as possible. 

It is now in the form of a very clean, light, downy sub- 



MENDING 371 

stance, but the fibre is not parallel. To effect this it is 
carded or combed straight. After the carding the cotton 
leaves the carding engine in a small, delicate roll called a 
"sliver, which has to be changed into rovings," or still 
more delicate threads, which are so thin that they have a 
slight twist given them, which converts them into a loose 
kind of spongy thread, which is spun into yarn. In making 
thread the yarn is doubled and twisted more than for weav- 
ing into cloth, as greater strength is required. It is washed, 
bleached, dyed, and reeled on to bobbins, and finally spooled. 
In spooling, after the machine tender has set the spool on 
the spindle, and attached the end of the thread from the 
bobbin, the machine does the rest. It runs on evenly, just 
two hundred yards, and at the right time and place cuts the 
fine slit in the edge of the spool, fastens the thread in it, 
cuts it off, and drops it in a tray, after which the spools are 
labelled and packed. 

When the yarn is to be woven into cotton cloth, there are 
many intermediate steps to be taken after the spinning is 
completed, such as dressing, beaming, winding, and warping. 

Besides the dressing, there are many curious machines 
employed to prepare the yarn for the loom, and many of 
these operations are nearly alike in all the manufacture of 
textiles, whether cotton, wool, silk, or linen. 

The yarn for the warp and woof threads are prepared on 
different machines, the warp thread being made the stronger, 
as it is subject to a greater strain. 

White cotton cloth is bleached after weaving. 

Flax. — The linen cloth and linen thread we have is made 
from flax, which in turn is gotten from the flax plant. 

This plant is from twenty to forty inches high, with long, 
narrow leaves branching only at the top, with bright blue 
flowers. The seeds of the flax are known as linseed, and 
are much used for oil. 



372 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

The stalks are to be pulled before the capsules are quite 
ripe, when the stalks of the plant have become yellow, and 
are about two-thirds their height. The stalks are pulled 
from the roots, not cut ; the seeds are then separated from 
the stalks, and the stalks are sunk in water and kept down 
by weights, as nothing is lighter than flax, until the fibre, 
which is to be used, is partly separated from the woody 
core. It is then taken out, and by a method known as 
scutching the fibre is entirely freed. 

The spinning and weaving is the same as for cotton. 

Needles. — The needle, though a simple instrument, has, 
in its manufacture, to pass through the hands of nearly a 
hundred workmen. It is made from steel wire, and the 
processes through which it has to pass are as follows : 
1st, cutting the wire ; 2d, straightening ; 3d, pointing ; 4th, 
eying; 5th, hardening; 6th, cleaning; 7th, counting and 
packing. 

In the first step, or the cutting of the wire, the wire is cut 
in pieces the length of two needles, wires of equal diameters 
being selected, so the needles will be all of one size. These 
lengths, having been cut from coils of wire, are, of course, 
all more or less bent, and have to be straightened, which is 
the second step. This is done by enclosing them within two 
rings, which are heated to redness. The edges of the rings 
are inserted in what is called a smooth file, and the rings 
held in this are rolled backward and forward until, by their 
friction against each other, the wires become perfectly 
straight. 

They are then pointed at each end in a pointing machine, 
which simply requires the feeding of the wires in a little 
trough. In their almost momentary stay in the machine, 
during which they are made to rotate on a centre-hollowed 
stone, they are pointed precisely as if clone by hand. 

We now have a wire pointed at each end, or two needles 



MENDING 373 

joined together, ready for the eyes, or holes for the thread. 
The eyes are now punched in by a stamping machine, and 
the needles are broken in two. 

They are next hardened by being brought to a red heat 
and then placed in cold water or oil, heated again, and grad- 
ually cooled. When they change to a blue color they are 
properly tempered. 

As the needles are now in a very dirty state, they are 
cleaned by being put in heaps in canvas, and rolled into 
bundles, and put in a scouring machine with soft soap, 
emery, and oil, where they are rolled back and forth for 
fifty or sixty hours. 

When taken out they are sorted, so as to have the heads 
all one way. This is done by girls, who wrap wash leather 
around the fore fingers of their hands, and, pressing them 
against the pile of needles, catch all the points. 

As a last touch, the needles are rubbed between chamois 
leather to remove any stains which may have been left, and 
are then ready to pack. 

They are counted, and put into papers chemically pre- 
pared, which prevents the needles from rusting. An expert 
can count and paper three thousand needles in an hour. 

The largest needle factory is in Eedditch, England. 

The Thimble. — Thimbles are made of metals, such as gold, 
silver, steel, brass, aluminum, and celluloid. 

The metal from which the thimble is to be made is rolled 
in thin sheets, and cut into round disks, which are put upon 
a die, and made to take the shape of a thimble. The edge is 
then turned up, and the small indentations are made by 
machinery upon the top and halfway down the sides, which 
catch the needle when used in sewing. They are tempered 
by heating and cooling, very much as the needles are. Most 
of the ornamentation upon common thimbles is done by 
machinery, though the finer thimbles are hand engraven. 



374 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Some thimbles are made without a top, and are used 
chiefly by tailors ; while sailors use only a broad ring, with 
flat indentations on one side, and wear it on the thumb, 
instead of the middle finger. 

Lesson I 
Facts 

Correct Position. — The child should sit erect and well 
back in the chair, and hold her work up but not too near 
the eyes. 

Threading the Needle. — (1) Measure the length of thread 
from shoulder to shoulder. (2) Break the thread from the 
spool. (3) Hold the needle, a little below the eye, between 
the thumb and first finger of the left hand. (4) Hold the 
thread in the right hand and* bring the hands together, 
thumbs touching, at the same time pulling the thread 
through the eye of the needle. 

Making a Knot. — Twist the end of the thread once and a 
half times around the top of the first finger of the left hand, 
roll the end under with the thumb, and secure the knot by 
pulling it down with the thumb nail. 

Taking a Stitch. — Hold the needle up to the thimble, — 
make a stitch. Draw the thread through with the thread 
over the little finger. 

Holding Scissors. — Scissors should be held in the right 
hand with thumb and middle finger through the handles 
and pointed blade down. In cutting straight lines, the 
blades should be opened wide and brought together with 
one movement until the tips almost meet, and in repeating 
the movement care should be taken to have the line contin- 
uous and not jagged. 

Method. — For these lessons in mending, each child will 
need a bag in which to keep her utensils and her work. It 



MENDING 375 

is not a bad plan to show them one of a suitable size and, 
giving them the material, let each make her own before the 
lessons begin. For, after all, experience is an excellent 
teacher, and having made an effort, they will be the readier 
to learn a " better way." 

In the bag they will need a small needle case, a pin- 
cushion, scissors, thimble, and thread. 

All the work outlined in this lesson should be done as 
a drill, that is to say by count. The teacher, of course, 
increases the rapidity of the count as they become more 
expert. 

Drill for opening Bags 

1. Open bag. 

2. Take out work. 

3. Arrange it on the desk. 

Drill for closing Bags 

1. Put away the needle. 

2. Fold up the work. 

3. Put it away in the bag. 

4. Hold up bag. 

5. Collect. 



Drill for threading the Needle 

1. Measure the thread. 

2. Break it from the spool. 

3. Hold needle in the left hand. 

4. Hold thread in the right hand. 

5. Bring the hands together. 

6. Pull the thread through and over. 

7. Knot. 



376 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Drill for taking a Stitch 

1. Hold the needle up to the thimble. 

2. Make a stitch. 

3. Draw the thread through. 

Lesson II 

Basting 

Materials. — Muslin, 70 cotton, No. 9 needles. 
Facts. — Uneven basting (111. A) ; even basting (111. B). 
These two drawings show plainly what is meant by 
basting, and also the two kinds. In uneven basting the 

space stitch 



Illustration A — UNEVEN BASTING 

1st 
stitch 
back stitch knot 

space stitch 



Illustration B.— EVEN BASTING 

1st 
stitch 
back stitch knot 

stitches are about three-quarters of an inch, and the space 
one-eighth of an inch. In even basting both the stitch and 
the space are one-quarter of an inch long. 



MENDING 377 

In teaching this and all succeeding lessons, provide the 
class with samples. This should be individual, if possible. 
This means a good deal of labor, but each might be used 
many times. 

By all means use the blackboard. 

A large piece of material and worsted of a contrasting 
color will demonstrate all the stitches. 

Let the children themselves discover the knot, the short 
stitch immediately following the knot, the long stitches and 
short spaces (how long?), and the back stitch at the end. 
What is the advantage of a very short stitch at the begin- 
ning ? Why is it finished with a back stitch ? 

Show them with the worsted and cloth how to take each 
of these stitches. Show them the proper method of holding 
the muslin (over the first two fingers of the left hand). 
Let them baste. 

Show them samples of even basting. Let them compare 
the two. What is the difference ? What is the advantage 
of even basting ? (Greater security.) Of uneven basting ? 
(Greater speed.) 

Give them the opportunity to practise. 



Lesson III 

Hemming 

Facts. — For hemming, the cloth is folded twice, the 
width of each turn depending upon the material and the ob- 
ject of the hem. For practice hemming in school, the 
first turn should be one-quarter inch and the second one 
inch. The cloth should be turned and then carefully 
basted with the stitches close to the lower edge of the fold. 
The needle is pushed through the fold of the hem, slanting 
toward the left. Draw the needle through, leaving about 



378 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



one-half inch of the thread still through the muslin (111. C). 
The second and third stitches, also, are taken only through 
the fold of the hem, but the needle slants toward the right 
(111. D). All the remaining stitches are taken through the 
three thicknesses of the material with the needle slanting 
toward the right. These stitches must be perfectly even. 





Illustration C 



The muslin should be held over the first finger of the left 
hand with the needle slanting toward the thumb of the left 
hand. 

Hemming is ended by taking three little stitches one 
over the other. 



MENDING 



379 



If the thread breaks in hemming, cut it off about one-half 
inch from the last stitch taken. Then commence with a 
new thread as at first. 

Method. — As before provided, abundant samples, black- 
board drawings, and worsted demonstrations. 

Teach the turning first with paper. This is not only 
easier for them, but it gives them the necessary practice 




Illustration D 



without soiling the material. Eequire them to test the 
widths with a ruler. 

When the turn has been made with the material, let them 
baste it neatly, first studying a basted (but unhemmed) 
sample. 



380 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Examine the hemmed sample. In this the stitches 
should be very large and made with thread of a contrasting 
color. It is an advantage to have the material thin, that 
they may hold it to the light, thus gaining a clear under- 
standing of the stitch. Show them how to begin the 
hemming. Let them practise. 

Teach the mending of the thread. 



Lesson IV 

Hemmed Patch 

Facts. — Cutting paper model for hemmed patch. Cut a 
square of paper 4J inches to represent garment to be patched. 



Illustration E 




Cut paper 4^- by 2>\ inches to represent patch to be put on. 
Draw on both papers vertical and horizontal lines at same 
distance apart to represent design to be matched. Fold the 



MENDING 



381 



square twice diagonally and cut out small hole in centre. 
Measure in one inch from edge of square on all four sides. 
Fold patch to fit, taking care to match stripes, and pin it on 
the wrong side. 

Cutting Cloth for Hemmed Patch and Basting it Together ; 
Hemming Begun. — Cut the cloth the same as paper model 




Illustration F 

and baste the patch on the wrong side, putting right side of 
patch to wrong side of garment, and using an even basting 
stitch one-quarter inch long. 

Hem the Patch on. — In hemming, hold the patch in the 
left hand over the first finger. In taking the stitch, have 
the needle slant over the middle of the thumb-nail and 
pointing toward the arm. In hemming, it is important to 



382 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

have the stitches of a uniform size, twelve to fifteen stitches 
to an inch being a good size for beginners. If the material 
is thin enough to see through in holding to the light, the 
hemming stitches will look like a row of small tents. 

Method. — In the teaching of the paper model for hemmed 
patch, it is well to cut a model in front of the class so they 
may thoroughly understand it before attempting it them- 
selves. 

There is the same necessity for abundance of demon- 
stration, material, and explicit direction in this as in all 
other lessons. 

Describe the reason and use of patching. 

Follow the steps as given in " Facts." 

Points to be noted. — Have patch large enough to cover 
worn places as well as hole. 

Be sure the threads of garment and patch run the same 
way. 

Call attention to corners, and show that they should be 
perfectly square. 

The shape of the patch depends upon the shape of the 
worn place. 

Lesson V 
Patch Finished — Weaving 

Facts. — To finish the patch, insert the scissors in the 
hole in the centre on the right side and cut diagonally to 
within one-half inch of hemming all from corners. Cut out 
the triangular pieces of material, leaving one-half inch 
margin all around the square. At each corner snip in one- 
quarter inch and turn in material as far as cut, and baste 
down and hem. 

Weaving. — Card 3| by 4^ inches, worsted, two colors, and 
worsted needle. Measure in on all four corners of card three- 



MENDING 



383 



quarters of an inch and mark. On upper and lower edge of 
card make a row of pencil dots directly opposite each other 
and prick through. Thread the worsted needle with the warp 
thread, make knot, and bring the needle through the first hole 



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Illustration G 



on top from wrong side. Carry worsted down to hole directly 
below, pass the needle through and bring it back through 
second hole, up to top again, and so on, until all the warp 
threads are in, and fasten on the wrong side. 

Thread the needle with another color for woof thread and 
fill in, going under first thread and over second, etc. ; the 
woof thread passing around the warp thread at the side 
makes the selvage. 



384 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



Method. — Explain the process of weaving plain cotton 
cloth. 

Make thoroughly clear the difference between woof and 
warp threads. 

Describe a bias and illustrate it. 

Have class draw warp and woof threads on blackboard. 



Lesson VI 

Darning 

Darning on Stockinet. — Stockinet 4 by 2\ inches, darning 
needle, darning cotton. 




.-^fr%33 



_ _ _- _ -> 



<J-z-Th2ra 



rl-TJtffitft 



_) 




Illustration H 



MENDING 385 

Cut small hole in the stockinet, baste it on a piece of stiff 
paper about 4^ by 3 \ inches in size, being careful not to stretch 
the stockinet. Commence to darn by putting in the warp 
threads, beginning one-quarter of an inch outside of the hole. 
Take up a small quantity of the material on the needle, skip 
the same amount, and repeat until the line of stitches is one- 
quarter of an inch beyond the hole. In going back, do not 
pull the thread through tightly, but leave a small loop to allow 
for shrinkage, and follow the principles of weaving in taking 
alternate stitches. Put the warp threads in, in the form of 
a diamond. 

In going back and forth over the hole be particular to 
catch all the loops around the edge of the hole. Have the 
woof threads follow the shape of the hole, going one-eighth 
of an inch outside. Show how the principles of weaving 
may be applied to darning. 

Lesson VII 
Darning (continued) 

Darning on Cloth. — Cashmere 4 by 2 inches. In darning 
on cloth, use ravellings, if possible, to darn with; if not, 
have fine silk to match cloth. 

Make a lengthwise cut in cashmere three-quarters of an 
inch long. Thread the needle, hold cut edges firmly 
together with thumb and first finger of left hand, and darn 
back and forth over cut, commencing one-eighth of an inch 
above and darning to one-eighth of an inch below the cut, 
making the darn about one-quarter of an inch wide. 

Method. — In giving this lesson, do not permit the class to 
work too quickly, as a good result will not be obtained. 
Care and patience must be used. The edges must not over- 
lap nor pull apart, and the threads must run the same as the 
material so that the stitches will not show. 

Show the difference between an overhand and a hemmed 
2c 



386 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



patch, tell which is stronger, which shows the least and 
why, and where used. 

Explain that in patching a garment the square would 
have to be outlined with chalk or basting thread, as it could 
not be creased. Give the lesson as outlined. 



Lesson VIII 

Overhand Patch 

Overhand Patch. — Figured percale or gingham, 70 cotton, 
No. 9 needle. 

Cut two squares of material 5^- inches, one to represent 




Illustration I 



the garment, the other the patch. In the piece that repre- 
sents the garment, cut a small hole in the centre, fold 
the square twice diagonally and crease, open the square 
and cut through the creased lines to within 1\ inches of 



MENDING 



387 



the corners. Turn the triangles thus made back to wrong 
side. This makes the frame. 

Place the square for the patch on the table right side up. 
Place frame over the patch matching the pattern exactly. 
Pin in place. Turn in patch at line of matching on upper 
side. Take out pins and put right side of garment to right 
side of patch at upper edge of patch and baste turned-in 
edges together. 

Lesson IX 

Overhand Patch (continued) 

Overhanding. — Do not make a knot in the thread. Put 
the needle straight through both edges, pointing it toward 
the chest; draw the thread almost through, leaving about 




Illustration J 



388 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

one-quarter of an inch ; turn this end toward the left on the 
top of the seam where it will be held down by the first 
three stitches. Have the stitches rather close together, and 
in taking stitch always be sure to point the needle cor- 
rectly. In ending, take three stitches back over last 
three, making cross stitches. Crease, baste, and overhand 
each remaining side by itself. When overhanding is fin- 
ished, cut off all edges of seams to within one-quarter inch 
in width. Finish corners like illustration. 

Show the difference between an overhand and a hemmed 
patch, tell which is stronger, which shows the least and 
why, and where used. 

Explain that in patching a garment the square would 
have to be outlined with chalk or basting thready as it could 
not be creased. 

Give the lessons as outlined. 

Lesson X 

Sewing on Buttons 

A button with holes must be sewed on firmly but a little 
loosely. Mark the place for the button; have a strong 

thread ; take a small stitch, leaving knot 

on right side ; put needle through hole 

No. 1 of button, pulling the thread 

through ; place a pin diagonally across 

the button over holes 2 and 3 and sew 

back and forth five times through holes 

1 and 4 (111. K) ; twist the pin so 

that it lies over holes 1 and 4 and 

sew five times through holes 2 and 3 ; 

remove the pin and pull the button up to the top of thread ; 

bring the needle to wrong side of button and wind several 

times around threads and fasten on the wrong side. 




MENDING 389 

Buttons with two holes are sewed on in the same way 
and buttons with shanks or hooks, as shoe buttons, should 
be sewed on with the stitches taken parallel with the edge. 

Method. — Have folded strips of cloth for the children 
to sew their buttons on, and demonstrate the lesson before 
the class with large piece of cloth and large buttons made 
of pasteboard so all can see. 

Lesson XI 
Mending Gloves 

Facts. — This is merely fine overseaming or overhanding. 
For preliminary work repeat overhanding, taking care to 
have the stitches the same size. 

Method. — When the children have had sufficient practice 
in overhanding, distribute among them gloves or fingers of 
gloves. Let them examine the overhanding. How does it 
differ from your work ? Why ? 

What tools will you need for repairing gloves ? (No. 10 
needle, silk.) Why ? 

Let them bring gloves from home to be repaired. Collect 
old gloves for those who do not bring material from home. 



CHAPTER XVI 

HOW TO TURN AN ORDINARY SCHOOLROOM INTO 
A WORKSHOP FOR THE STUDY OF HOUSEHOLD 
ARTS 

By M. ISABELLA McNEAR 

Graduate of the Boston Normal School of Domestic Science ; Special Student 
of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard University, and 
Columbia College ; formerly Teacher in the Training School, Knoxville, 
Tenn.; the Sargent Industrial School, Matteaavan, N.Y. ; Principal of the 
Trinity Parish Cooking-School, New York City ; and now in Charge of 
Domestic Science, Hampton Institute, Ya. 

How to turn an Ordinary Schoolroom into a Workshop for 
the Study of Household Arts. — It will be a great help to the 
pupils as a lesson in thrift and order, and to the teacher 
financially, if she can get them to feel that the small apart- 
ment devoted to the study of household arts belongs to 
them while in it, and that they must do their part toward 
furnishing and keeping it clean. They can also help in 
selecting the materials after a previous discussion with the 
teacher about the color, design, usefulness, etc. 

Subdivision of the Schoolroom into Other Rooms. — Having 
selected the room and decided how much money and help is 
available, the next thing to consider is the room itself: 
how large, how light, how many windows and doors, and 
how high the windows are ; for on these things will largely 
depend the subdivision of the room into other rooms. For 
example : if there is only one door, it would seem to be best 
for it to open into the parlor, having the dining room and 
bedroom next to the parlor on each side. At the same time 
it is also necessary to have the lightest rooms for the 

390 



TO TURN A SCHOOLROOM INTO A WORKSHOP 391 

kitchen and laundry. It is especially necessary to have 
plenty of light in the latter. As the ordinary schoolroom 
has from four to six windows in it, — and these on two 
sides, — there must be one room, and in this case it ought 
to be the parlor, without a window. 



WiNDOW 



WINDOW 



BED ROOM 


KITCHEN 

AND 
LAUNDRY 


PARLOR 


DINING ROOM 




i5-ft: 



30 L ft 

HALL 

Diagram I 



:.— 4 



The next thing to consider is the size of the room, and 
into how many compartments it can be divided, and by 
what means. 

If it is a small room about 25 by 30 ft., and divided 
into four equal parts, each part would be about 121 by 
15 ft. This would give four fair sized rooms to furnish. 
But they would be too small for class work unless the 



392 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



duties of the class be divided among the pupils, so that they 
can be scattered through the different compartments as in 
any ordinary house. 

The laundry work could be taught in the kitchen. This 
might be a better plan than having a laundry, as the parents 
of most of the children do their washing, ironing, and cook- 



-1-5-ft; 



-40-ftr 



WINDOWS 



-1-5 -ft: 



-K 10-ft- 



WINDOWS 



fT 



BED ROOM 



3ft.i 



KITCHEN 



34 ft. 



PARLOR 



LAUNDRY 



3 ft.. 






DINING ROOM 



to 




III 



— 20-ft si 



Diagram II 



ing in one room. Yet it will be very inconvenient to teach 
a class to wash, iron, and cook under such circumstances. 

Such being the case, one corner of the parlor could be 
screened off with an ordinary small screen. Behind this 
screen could be placed a dining-room table and chairs. This 
would give an extra room for the laundry. 

If it is a larger room, or about 40 by 30 ft., which is nearer 
to the ordinary sized schoolroom, it could be divided very 



TO TURN A SCHOOLROOM INTO A WORKSHOP 393 

easily into five small rooms. The parlor and dining room 
could be 15 by 20 ft., and enough, say 5 ft., taken off the bed- 
room to give extra room to the kitchen ; so that the latter 
might be subdivided into kitchen and laundry. If the 
front of the room is 40 ft., and the sides 30, this divison 
would give a bedroom 15 by 15 ft., kitchen 15 by 15 ft., and 
a laundry 10 by 15 ft., which is quite large enough providing 
the classes are taught systematically. If the dimensions of 
the room are 30 by 40 ft., 30 ft. front, instead of 40 by 
30 ft., the three back rooms would all be 10 by 20 ft. ; not 
quite so convenient, but still could be used very well. As a 
laundry should be a very light room, the rooms in the dia- 
gram have been so arranged that the laundry is a side room 
with a window on its longest side. This arrangement gives 
a window to all the rooms except the parlor. 

Partitions. — By what means is the room to be divided ? 
Ordinary roller blinds supported by pillars in the room 
would probably be too expensive ; as would also be the case 
if Venetian blinds were used. They could not be decorated 
as walls, and would be hard to keep clean. Moreover, if 
they were hung from the ceiling they would make the 
room too dark. Curtains are not to be considered if it is 
possible to get anything else. Not only are they too expen- 
sive, but become easily soiled. This necessitates the ex- 
pense of having them washed. Besides, they collect and 
hold dust, giving a room eventually a dusty odor. 

Partitions: Matched Boards. — The best and perhaps the 
cheapest partition could be made of matched boards stained 
and varnished to match the other wood in the room. It 
should be fastened to the floor, and, by cross pieces at the 
top, to the wall to make it stand firmly. It should not be 
more than 7 ft. high. This would give a wall a little higher 
than a tall person, and yet allow room for light and circula- 
tion of air over the screens to the compartments having no 



394 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

window. A partition 6 ft. high would be over an ordinary 
person's head, and allow more space for air and light. 

The partition should not extend to the wall ; but there 
should be allowed 3 ft. at each end of the screen for a door- 
way. 

Some cheap, pretty figured material, as cretonne, could be 
used for portieres, and hung from the cross-bar that sup- 
ports the partition. 

Cost : Matched Boards. — If the room is 30 by 40 ft., taking 
off 3 ft. at each end, there would be two screens or partitions 
24 and 34 ft. long and 7 ft. high. These would cost about 
$30. If an extra screen or partition is put up to divide the 
laundry and kitchen, it would be an additional 84 sq. ft., 
and would cost about $10 extra. 

Small shelves, pictures, and looking glasses could be 
hung on a wall like this, which could not be if ordinary 
screens were used. 

Screens. — Frames made of ordinary wood, stained and 
varnished, large enough to cover this space, would cost from 
$15 to $20 without the cloth. It would require about 53 
square yards of cloth. And this at 25 cts. a yard would 
cost $13.25, bringing the cost of the screens to that of the 
partitions. 

It seems hardly desirable to use cloth to cover so large a 
space in a room where such a variety of work is being done ; 
as it becomes soiled from the dust, and absorbs the kitchen 
and laundry odors. This would necessitate replacing the 
cloth at intervals. 

The ordinary folding clothes horse could be made into a 
screen by tacking on common floor matting. Either the 
white or figured could be used, and it is both durable and 
clean, as it can be washed. This would cost 25 or 30 cts. a 
yard. It would hardly pay to use a cheaper quality for 
such a large screen. 



TO TURN A SCHOOLROOM INTO A WORKSHOP 395 

Tea cloth, obtained at large tea houses, is very pretty and 
artistic; as is also burlap, or what is commonly known as 
gunny cloth, and used for packing purposes. It is cheap, 
and, if tightly stretched, can be painted or gilded. Another 
pretty way to make a screen is to cover the frame with 
something that is thin as cheese cloth, and put paper over 
it. If a plain paper is used, it can be decorated by stencil- 
ling and the corners mitred. A very cheap wall-paper put 
on the wall with the wrong or white side out often gives a 
pretty and artistic effect. If screens are used, they should 
be fastened to the floor, and to each other, with brass or 
iron brackets known in trade as angles or knee irons. 

The Floor. — The floor should be finished so that it can 
easily be kept clean. 

Finish for an Old Floor. — A good finish for an old floor 
can be obtained by either of the following methods. First 
wash the floor thoroughly with either strong soap or lye ; 
wash again with slightly acid water, using either vinegar or 
weak muriatic acid. This will neutralize the soda and give 
a better finish to the floor. If it is a rough floor, use the 
following recipe after washing as described: dissolve 10 
cents' worth of glue in 1 quart of warm water ; after it has 
soaked 12 hours add 1 quart of warm water, and 2 lbs. or 
enough yellow ochre to make it the consistency of cream ; 
apply to the floor while warm. When dried, hard oil the 
floor. Another very good recipe for an ordinary good floor 
is, after washing as described, tb oil with crude oil, turpen- 
tine, and stain. The proportion is 1 cup or i pint of tur- 
pentine to 2 quarts of oil, and enough burnt umber or other 
stain to give the desired color. After this has dried rub 
over with common furniture varnish reduced to about the 
consistency of thin cream. This is neither difficult to do 
nor expensive, and if a class of girls could be interested in 
fitting up such a room ; it would be both a practical and 
valuable lesson for them. 



390 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Parlor Furniture. — To impress upon the minds of the 

pupils what is meant by hygienic cleanliness, and the feel- 
ing of restfulness that comes from living in an absolutely 
clean and sweet home, there should be as few staffed pieces 
of furniture, curtains, and doilies as possible. The writer 
has in mind, among other things, covered wooden be 
redolent with the odor of dust. These things do not keep 
really clean more than a few weeks. And unless the covers 
can be easily slipped off and washed, they give the room an 
untidy appearance. 

Most of the furniture could be made of boxes by the 
students. Of course it would be necessary to buv the larger 
~s. 

Rugs and Carpets. — The parlor should have a light-weight 
rug upon the centre of the floor, or several mats. The mats 
dd be made of remnants of carpets finished at the ends 
with fringe. Ingrain carpet would be best to use. as the 
other kinds are too heavy to handle easily, and too expen- 
sive. There is a kind of hemp carpet that is very durable 
and only costs about 35 crs. a yard, which would make 
either a good rug or mats. 

The children could make rag mats by braiding strips of 
cloth collected from their friends, or the friends of the 
school. It should be torn into strips as class work, and 
the strips sewed together at home and wound into balls. 
The lesson in braiding could be given in the school and the 
work finished if necessary in their homes. The braids 
could then be sewed round a centrepiece as a part of their 
school work. Bed and black strips make a pretty rug. 

A drawn mat is not hard to make, and when properly 
snipped is very pretty. Simple designs can be bought 
which can be used as n in colors. 

Settees. — A settee could be verv easilv made by fastening 
together securely at their ends two cracker, or other long 



TO TURN A SCHOOLROOM INTO A WORKSHOP 397 

boxes ; and making a wooden cover for the top fastened 
on with either hinges, or pieces of leather about one inch 
wide and three inches long. If leather is used, there should 
be two strips for each hinge. They should be fastened on 
the box so that one end of the strip comes under the lid and 
the other end outside of the box. The second piece should 
be nailed close to the first only reversed as to the position of 
the ends. One end should be fastened on the outside of the 
lid and the other end inside of the box. This will prevent 
the lid from slipping out of position. The inside of the box 
and lid should be lined with a dark-colored cambric to match 
the ground color of the outside covering. Cut a long strip 
of the lining about 1J inches deeper than the box and long 
enough to allow some fulness at the corners ; sew this 
around a piece of cambric just big enough to fit the bottom ; 
place this in the box and tack the edge around the outside 
of the box. Line the lid with a straight piece, bringing the 
edges over the outside. If unfigured goods is used for the 
outside of the box, it can be drawn over the sides and ends 
in plaits or folds and fastened. Or if figured, it should be 
put on either as a plaited ruffle or plain. The top can be 
stuffed, or a long flat mattress like a cushion be made for it, 
having a narrow ruffle to fall over the edge. Plain square 
and rather flat cushions might be placed against the wall to 
form a back. 

Chair. — A chair can be made by screwing or nailing two 
upright pieces of wood on the opposite ends of a square box 
placed bottom up unless it has a cover. The pieces must be 
placed to slant at a slight angle from the corners of the box 
and connected at their upper ends by a wide piece of board. 
The uprights and back can be sandpapered, oiled, and var- 
nished, the seat stuffed, and the whole bottom of the chair, or 
box, covered with cretonne. The ruffle round the chair could 
be fastened with brass-headed tacks. A very good descrip- 



398 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

tion of this furniture can be found in the June number of 
the Ladies' Home Journal for 1898. 

Mantle Shelf. — A piece of board rounded at the ends and 
fastened to the wall with iron brackets makes a pretty 
mantle shelf. A piece of box can be used. Either paint, 
varnish, or cover with some pretty, cheap material. 

Bookshelves. — Some pupil whose father has a grocery 
store might be induced to bring some small boxes of uni- 
form size for a bookcase. Perhaps another pupil could get 
her father to plane the sides. Or the student could rub 
them smooth with coarse sandpaper, using what is called 
No. li. If a smooth surface is desired, rub the last time 
with finer sandpaper. Oil with the crude oil and turpentine 
mixed according to the recipe for the floor. If three or 
four coats of oil are put on before the varnish, it will give a 
soft velvety finish. Of course each coat must be dry before 
another is put on. Use either a brush or piece of soft cloth. 
It is well to mix a little starch or white filling in the oil for 
the first coat, especially if the wood is soft pine. In adding 
the coloring or burnt umber to the oil, it must not be for- 
gotten that pine turns dark with age,' and therefore should 
be quite light when finished. This work seems hard, but 
the writer has always found the pupils not only willing, but 
anxious, to help in making such things. It is a good lesson 
because they use both their brains and hands. If whoever 
superintends this work can use simple tools, or if not, can 
take a few lessons in the use of such tools as are needed, the 
students can make nearly all the furniture. All that would 
be needed are : hand-saw, hammer, hatchet, rule, pencil, nails, 
tacks, sandpaper, brass-headed tacks, boxes, iron brackets, a 
piece of soft thin leather, thread, scissors, needles, cloth, and 
thimble. Certainly these are not very costly articles, con- 
sidering the lessons taught. 

Table. — A small round table can be made with the lids 



TO TURN A SCHOOLROOM INTO A WORKSHOP 899 

of a butter firkin, using broom handles for the legs, and 
covering the top with felt and fringe. A small square box 
covered with a piece of carpet or cretonne makes a pretty 
stool. 

Dining-room Rugs. — Cover the dining-room floor with a 
crumb cloth, either bought ready-made, or made of striped 
furniture linen or plain dark blue denim. The latter makes 
a pretty covering for the centre of the floor, also as a border 
with a centrepiece of either matting or carpeting, as a rug. 

Sideboard. — Make a small closet or sideboard by placing 
a small long box endwise upon the end of a larger box. If 
these cannot be planed, oiled, and varnished, they should be 
sandpapered and painted both inside and outside. A dark 
red is pretty, though white enamel paint could be used. At 
least two coats of paint should be put on to hide the natural 
roughness of the wood. Shelves should be put into each 
box, and curtains hung in front of the larger box, on a brass 
rod. 

Bedroom 

Bed. — For the bedroom get a narrow white iron bedstead. 
This would be light and easy to move by the girls in such a 
small room. 

Dressing-table. — The dressing-table may be made by 
covering a large dry goods box with white dotted Swiss 
muslin over a bright covering of cambric ruffled on. Green 
is pretty and clean looking. Some pretty toilet articles 
arranged on the top would serve as an object-lesson. 

A looking glass could be hung on the wall, and dotted 
muslin, lined with green, draped over it, extending to the 
ends of the dressing table and forming a canopy at the top. 
This should be either fastened to the walls or to a wooden 
supporter fastened to the wall by means of an iron bracket ; 
and extending forward over the looking glass and table. Of 



400 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

course each teacher must use her own judgment, as in other 
matters, about the colors to be used. 

If the students have had lessons in sloyd, they may be 
able to put one or two shelves in the box and use it for a 
linen closet. Finish the inside with sandpaper and two or 
three coats of white paint. The paint is not expensive, and 
can be bought ready for use. 

Washstand. — A washstand can be made of another smaller 
box. Plane or sandpaper and paint white, especially the 
inside and top. The first coat should be flat paint and the 
last white enamel. Drape with dotted white Swiss over 
colored cambric to match the bureau; and cover the top 
with heavy white linen hemstitched. 

Kitchen. — The kitchen should not be crowded with furni- 
ture if good work is expected. A stove, table, chairs, and 
closets are all that are needed. 

Stoves. — The gas companies of some large cities will 
supply any housekeeper with a good gas stove, which, when 
a certain amount of gas has been used, becomes the property 
of the consumer. In this case it would belong to the school. 
It might be very easy to make such an arrangement for both 
the laundry and kitchen. 

Table. — A plain wooden table about 4 ft. long with a 
drawer in it would be quite large enough. If desirable, a 
large drygoods box can be made into a table by sand- 
papering and painting as in the case of the other boxes. 
Only do not paint the top, cover it, and the ends if desirable, 
with white enamel cloth. Put a gingham curtain in front 
and use the inside for a closet. A shelf can be easily put in 
by nailing some wooden cleats on the inside and placing 
boards that are long enough for the box upon them. Such 
a table was planned by the writer for the teachers in the 
county colored schools of the South who were anxious to 
help their people to a better way of living by teaching the 



TO TURN A SCHOOLROOM INTO A WORKSHOP 401 

children in their one-roomed schoolhouse how to cook such 
food as they can get. 

Closets. — The closets could be made of boxes. But a 
larger one can be made of matched boards by a carpenter 
for about $10. It is not an extravagance, as it is very 
essential to have a good closet that can be locked. 

Ice Box. — It is also possible to make a very good ice box 
by lining a box with zinc, and boring a hole in the bottom 
and also one near the top. The box must be placed upon 
legs and have a good cover, which should be zinc lined. Of 
course, while it might teach a lesson of what can be done, yet 
the girls would hardly be strong enough to make the box 
themselves. It would have to be done by a man or some 
strong boys. 

Laundry. — For the laundry all that is really needed is a 
bench long enough to hold two or three tubs, a stool or short 
bench for the tub that should be placed near the stove ; one 
or two chairs ; a solid table ; and an ironing board to stretch 
either from chair to chair, or from the back of one chair to 
the table. The smaller articles necessary are 5, 6, and 7 lb. 
irons, two polishing irons, iron stands, shirt and sleeve 
boards, one two-quart agate saucepan, dishpan, long spoon, 
pail, small round boiler, clothes stick, washboard, large 
dipper, blanket sheet, iron holder. The light tubs, costing 
about 50 cents each, are better than those that are heavier 
and more expensive. They will last about as long and are 
not too heavy to lift. In furnishing a school laundry, or 
school kitchen, light-weight small things are better than 
large and unwieldy ones, which are not easily handled by 
the students. Things should be cooked in such small 
quantities in a school that only small utensils are needed. 

Laundry Table. — The laundry table can be made either by 
the students, of a large box, or by a carpenter. If made by 
the students, a large box should be used, shelves placed in it, 
2d 



402 HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

and a curtain hung across the front. The writer has such a 
table made by a carpenter. The top is of heavy wood hav- 
ing solid ends, with a partition running through the centre 
from end to end. The sides are divided into compartments 
with shelves. One or more of the compartments having no 
shelves are used for larger articles, as long bottles, basket, 
wringer. The compartments serve as a closet in which all 
small articles common to a laundry can be kept ; also the 
clothes which the girls have washed and which they will iron 
during their next lesson. If the stove is large enough, part 
of the girls can iron while the others are washing. Two gas 
stoves can be used in the laundry : one large enough to put 
a round wash-boiler upon it; or a double stove would be 
better, as it would allow room for the kettle at the same 
time the boiler is on ; and another stove, with an attach- 
ment for irons, for the girl who irons the articles which 
have been washed during the previous lesson. 

Brush Box. — A very convenient box for dustpans, brushes, 
etc., can be made by using a box with a lid, as a varnish or 
cracker box, sandpapering, oiling, and varnishing; or by 
putting on several coats of paint. It is better to simply oil 
with crude oil the tops of tables and benches and any sur- 
faces that are to be used for work where hot water or 
grease is liable to be spilled, or such as have to be 
washed frequently. No filling or varnish should be put in 
the oil. 

In a room divided as this would be, large classes would 
be impracticable. It is well to have the pupils alternate in 
their work from lesson to lesson. Let those who cook the 
small lunch to-day set the table and take charge of the 
dining room in the next lesson ; so with the bedroom and 
laundry. As unused things will grow soiled from handling 
and dust, there will be plenty of chance to use the laundry 
for the ordinary linen of a household. This arrangement 



TO TURN A SCHOOLROOM INTO A WORKSHOP 403 

will allow several girls for each room, and also give them a 
chance to do some sewing, as keeping up the stock of towels, 
bed linen, etc. 

There are so many ways in which girls can be made to 
feel that they are keeping house, with all the ordinary inter- 
ests of a housekeeper whose life is full of thoughts of the 
home and the influence it has for good on those who come 
in contact with it. 

After the room has been selected and the partitions put 
up, the girls might take their first lesson in furnishing. A 
blackboard is very necessary, and should be placed in either 
the kitchen or laundry. The girls could go there each 
morning for the general outline of their work, also for any 
remarks to be copied or remembered. 

It must be remembered in furnishing a room like this that 
it should be done with taste and simplicity; that stuffed 
things grow rapidly dingy, and have to be replaced; that 
children should not only be taught to work well and neatly, 
but the general air of the whole apartment should be so 
sweet and fresh that their senses would become accustomed 
to it and miss it. This cannot be obtained in a room 
crowded with furniture, nor if it is of a kind that will grow 
soiled and musty and cannot be washed. 

As a last remark the writer wishes to say that she has 
tested the statements made in this chapter, and knows that 
the work given is perfectly practicable. 

If small classes are impracticable, then either larger rooms 
must be provided, or else the same space must be divided 
into smaller rooms. Therefore Diagrams III.-V. are sub- 
mitted in the hope that they may prove of use. 

Besides the gas range provided for in the kitchen, and 
the round gas stove for the wash-boiler in the laundry, there 
should be provision made for several small stoves. Either 



404 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



a table, a long narrow box, or a shelf could be used. The 
box, if used, should be either sandpapered and varnished, 
or painted to look neat, and fastened so that it will stand 
securely on the ground. 

A shelf of heavy w r ood from twelve to eighteen inches 
wide and long enough to hold two or more stoves could be 



r 



■10-ftT— 



-V5-f tr - ■ 



J 



LAUNDRY 



LAUNDRY STOVE 

v Q 



KITCHEN 

STOVE 
SHELVES 

KITCHEN STOVE 
I I 



PARLOR 

BED ROOM 

DINING ROOM 



J 



U 



STORE 
ROOM 

5 ft. 



-25-ft- 



DlAGRAM III 



"1 



fastened to the wall. It should be made either stationary 
or to fold down. If stationary, the space between the shelf 
and floor could be enclosed and used as a closet. The shelf 
should not be more than twenty-eight inches from the 
ground. The top should be covered with zinc : and the wall 
faced up from the shelf about eighteen inches. This should 
be done as much for cleanliness as safety. 



TO TURN A SCHOOLROOM INTO A WORKSHOP 405 

If gas stoves are used, they should be screwed to the table 
by means of holes bored through the feet. 

If oil stoves are used, a band of zinc about one and one- 
half inches wide, with the top edge turned, should be 
soldered on to the strips of zinc, which is on top of the table 
or shelf. This should be shaped to form a case in which the 



45-ffc 



-25-ffc 



/ 



LAUNDRY 



x -^ 



4 



PARLOR 



I 



Kitchen 



bed ROOM 



\ 



Ti 






DINING ROOM 



\ 



1-5-ftT- 



1 2ft7 - 

-40ft; 



-13-ft; 



i i 

jii 



•-M 



Diagram IV 



stove can stand. The case should be made to fit the out- 
side of the stove tightly enough to hold it firmly when 
placed in it to prevent its being knocked over by the 
children. 

The writer once used for two years a long dining-room 
table covered with white enamel cloth, and having a strip 
of zinc running through the middle lengthwise with cases 



406 



HANDBOOK OF DOMESTIC SCIEXCE 



for four small stoves. With these four small stoves and 
ordinary range in a small room, she often taught classes 



an 

of 



-1-5-ftr- 



r 



STORE ROOM 



PARLOR 

OR 

BED ROOM 

OR 

DINING ROOM 

ACCORDING TO THE NECESSITIES 
OF THE LESSONS 




/ 



1 Q O O Q| 

TUBS UPON A BENCH 

IRONING 
TABLE 



LAUNDRY 

AND 
KITCHEN 



— n 

GAS STOVE 
FOR WASH 
-BOILER 



RANGE 



SHELF 

FOR 
STOVES 



KITCHEN TABLE 



\ 



-1-5-ft; 



-1S-ft~ 



30 ft. 

Diagram V 



-4 



twenty-five. Nevertheless, a stove for each student is the 
ideal toward which all should strive. 








Diagram VI. — Stove Shelf 



TO TURN A SCHOOLROOM INTO A WORKSHOP 407 

If this shelf is made to turn down, the strip of zinc should 
be made to fit the shelf with turned edges and places for 
screws, so that it can be removed when desirable ; or but- 
tons can be screwed to the table so that they can be turned 
to hold the strip in place. Small tin ovens can be bought 
that fit these stoves, and in which very good work can be 
done. A class of fifteen or twenty could be easily managed 
with three or four small stoves and a range. 

It might be better to have oil stoves, as the pipes in large 
buildings are often too small to allow enough gas to pass 
through them to fully supply so many burners through sub- 
pipes. With several such small stoves, combined with the 
range and a gas stove large enough to heat a medium sized 
round wash-boiler, one fair sized room could be used for 
both the laundry and kitchen. This arrangement would 
give a little more room, save the expense of a partition, and 
be a little easier for the teacher. 

If the room is too small to divide as described, it could be 
divided into two or three compartments, keeping one for the 
kitchen and laundry during the whole year, and using the 
other at intervals for bedroom, parlor, and dining room. 
It could be used during the first part of the term as a bed- 
room, next as a parlor, and during the last part of the term, 
when the girls know more about cooking, as a dining room. 
It would of course be necessary to change some of the 
furniture each time. In this case a storeroom would be 
needed. It might be well to consider this when getting the 
furniture, so that some of it could be used for all three 
rooms. 



NATURE STUDY 



IN 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 



By LUCY LANGDON WILLIAMS WILSON, Ph.D. 



H Manual for Ceacbers 

Illustrated. Cloth. i6tno. Price 90 cents, net 

H fnrst JVatUre Reader, for second year work 
Illustrated. Cloth. i6mo. Price 35 cents, net 

3 SeCOtld Nature Reader, for third year and fourth year work 
Illustrated. Cloth. i6mo. Price 35 cents, net 



Julia Richman 
Principal Public 
School 77 y New 
York City 



Education 



New England 
Journal of 
Education 



"We have used Mrs. Wilson's i Nature Study 
in Elementary Schools ' since June, and my 
teachers are unanimous in their verdict that it is 
the best guide to their nature work that has 
come to our notice. It is hard to select a special 
merit in a work so full of good things, but its 
suggestions and its correlated language work 
have been of the greatest value. No teacher 
should be without a copy." 

"We have seen no book along this line that is 
more stimulating and inspiring. It shows the 
teacher just how to go to work to get the pupils 
interested and to make them observant. This is 
a modern subject, and it is handled in this volume 
in a modern and masterly manner. We com- 
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" This is an attractive manual on < Nature 
Study,' full of suggestion, abounding in infor- 
mation, instinct with inspiration. Nothing has 
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plete, varied, judicious, and directive than this 
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66 FIFTH AVF.NUE, NEW YORK 



HISTORY 

IN 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 

By LUCY LANGDON WILLIAMS WILSON, Ph.D. 



In One Volume. Illustrated. Cloth. i6mo. Price 60 cents, net 
In Five Parts. Paper. i6mo. Each, price 20 cents, net 



E. H. McLachlin 

Superintendent of 
Schools, South 
Hadley Falls, 
Mass. 

Chas. B. Jennings 

Superintendent of 
Schools, New 
London, Conn. 

George L. Smith 

Superintendent of 
Schools, Barring- 
' ton, R.I. 

Mrs. S. E. Pingree 

Superintendent of 
Schools , Hartford , 
Vt. 

W. W. Andrews, 

Prin. of B title r 
Grammar School, 
Portland, Me. 



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Prin. of North- 
East School, 
Hartford, Conn. 



COMMENTS 

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much, and the idea, of presenting history to 
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is the correct way." 

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some 'Wilson's History Readers.' 11 

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some of the books for supplementary reading. 11 

" I have examined the Reader, and think it a 
desirable and beautiful book, and shall order 
some for one of the schools, certainly, and pos- 
sibly more. 11 

" I think it is an excellent book ; in fact, the best 
of its kind that I have ever seen. 1 ' 

" I am more than pleased with it. In my judg- 
ment it is by far the best of the books of its 
kind that has come to my notice. It shall be 
the very first to be put into our school for sup- 
plementary reading. 11 



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